This book covers the area of advanced ceramic composites broadly, providing important introductory chapters to fundamentals, processing, and applications of advanced ceramic composites. Within each section, specific topics covered highlight the state of the art research within one of the above sections. The organization of the book is designed to provide easy understanding by students as well as professionals interested in advanced ceramic composites. The various sections discuss fundamentals of nature and characteristics of ceramics, processing of ceramics, processing and properties of toughened ceramics, high temperature ceramics, nanoceramics and nanoceramic composites, and bioceramics and biocomposites.
Inhaltsverzeichnis
Preface xvii
Foreword by Michel Barsoum xxiii
About the Authors xxv
Section One Fundamentals of Nature and Characteristics of Ceramics
1. Ceramics: Definition and Characteristics 3
1.1 Materials Classification 3
1.2 Historical Perspective; Definition and Classification of Ceramics 4
1.3 Properties of Structural Ceramics 8
1.4 Applications of Structural Ceramics 9
References 12
2. Bonding, Structure, and Physical Properties 14
2.1 Primary Bonding 15
2.1.1 Ionic Bonding 15
2.1.2 Covalent Bonding 18
2.1.3 Pauling’s Rules 19
2.1.4 Secondary Bonding 21
2.2 Structure 21
2.2.1 Na Cl-type Rock-Salt Structure 22
2.2.2 Zn S-Type Wurtzite Structure 22
2.2.3 Zn S-Type Zinc Blende Structure 23
2.2.4 Cs Cl Cesium Chloride Structure 23
2.2.5 Ca F2 Fluorite Structure 23
2.2.6 Antifl uorite Structure 24
2.2.7 Rutile Structure 24
2.2.8 Al2O3 Corundum Structure 24
2.2.9 Spinel Structure 25
2.2.10 Perovskite Structure 26
2.2.11 Ilmenite Structure 26
2.2.12 Silicate Structures 26
2.3 Oxide Ceramics 28
2.4 Non-Oxide Ceramics 30
References 33
3. Mechanical Behavior of Ceramics 34
3.1 Theory of Brittle Fracture 34
3.1.1 Theoretical Cohesive Strength 34
3.1.2 Inglis Theory 35
3.1.3 Griffi th’s Theory 37
3.1.4 Irwin’s Theory 39
3.1.5 Concept of Fracture Toughness 39
3.2 Cracking in Brittle Materials 40
3.3 Strength Variability of Ceramics 42
3.4 Physics of the Fracture of Brittle Solids 42
3.4.1 Weakest Link Fracture Statistics 44
3.5 Basic Mechanical Properties 48
3.5.1 Vickers Hardness 48
3.5.2 Instrumented Indentation Measurements 48
3.5.3 Compressive Strength 50
3.5.4 Flexural Strength 51
3.5.5 Elastic Modulus 52
3.5.6 Fracture Toughness 53
3.5.6.1 Long Crack Methods 54
3.5.6.2 Fracture Toughness Evaluation Using Indentation Cracking 55
3.6 Toughening Mechanisms 59
References 63
Section Two Processing of Ceramics
4. Synthesis of High-Purity Ceramic Powders 67
4.1 Synthesis of Zr O2 Powders 67
4.2 Synthesis of Ti B2 Powders 68
4.3 Synthesis of Hydroxyapatite Powders 70
4.4 Synthesis of High-Purity Tungsten Carbide Powders 71
References 75
5. Sintering of Ceramics 76
5.1 Introduction 76
5.2 Classification 78
5.3 Thermodynamic Driving Force 79
5.4 Solid-State Sintering 82
5.5 Competition between Densifi cation and Grain Growth 84
5.6 Liquid-Phase Sintering 88
5.7 Important Factors Infl uencing the Sintering Process 90
5.8 Powder Metallurgical Processes 92
5.8.1 Ball Milling 92
5.8.2 Compaction 94
5.8.2.1 Cold Pressing 94
5.8.2.2 Cold Isostatic Pressing 96
5.8.3 Pressureless Sintering 97
5.8.4 Reactive Sintering 98
5.8.5 Microwave Sintering 99
References 103
6. Thermomechanical Sintering Methods 105
6.1 Hot Pressing 105
6.2 Extrusion 108
6.3 Hot Isostatic Pressing 110
6.4 Hot Rolling 112
6.5 Sinter Forging 114
6.6 Spark Plasma Sintering 116
References 118
Section Three Surface Coatings
7. Environment and Engineering of Ceramic Materials 123
7.1 Environmental Infl uence on Properties of Engineering Ceramics 124
7.1.1 Oxidation Resistance 125
7.1.2 Corrosion Resistance 126
7.1.3 Creep Resistance 126
7.1.4 Hard Bearing Surfaces 126
7.1.5 Thermal and Electrical Insulation 126
7.1.6 Abrasion-Resistant Ceramics 127
7.1.7 Fretting Wear Resistance, Surface Fatigue, Impact Resistance 127
7.1.8 Erosion and Cavitation Resistance 127
7.2 Classification and Engineering of Ceramic Materials 128
7.2.1 Non-Oxide Ceramics 128
7.2.2 Oxide Ceramics 132
References 135
8. Thermal Spraying of Ceramics 137
8.1 Mechanism of Thermal Spraying 137
8.1.1 Advantages of Thermal Spraying 140
8.1.2 Disadvantages of Thermal Spraying 141
8.2 Classification of Thermal Spraying 141
8.2.1 Combustion Thermal Spraying 142
8.2.1.1 Flame (Powder or Wire) Spraying 142
8.2.1.2 High-Velocity Oxy-Fuel Spraying 144
8.2.1.3 Detonation Spray Technique 145
8.2.2 Electric Arc Spraying 148
8.2.3 Cold Spraying 149
8.2.4 Plasma Spraying 150
8.2.4.1 Atmospheric Plasma Spraying 152
8.2.4.2 Vacuum Plasma Spraying 154
8.3 Splat Formation and Spread 154
8.4 Near Net Shape Forming 156
8.5 Overview 157
References 158
9. Coatings and Protection of Structural Ceramics 160
9.1 Coatings 160
9.2 Protective Coatings 162
9.2.1 Biological Applications 162
9.3 Rocket Nozzle Inserts 163
9.4 Thermal Barrier Coatings 165
9.5 Wear Resistance 166
9.6 Corrosion Protection by Ceramics 168
9.7 Optically Transparent Ceramics 169
9.8 Ceramic Pottery and Sculptures 169
References 170
Section Four Processing and Properties of Toughened Ceramics
10. Toughness Optimization in Zirconia-Based Ceramics 175
10.1 Introduction 175
10.2 Transformation Characteristics of Tetragonal Zirconia 176
10.3 Phase Equilibria and Microstructure 177
10.4 Transformation Toughening 178
10.4.1 Thermodynamics of Transformation 179
10.4.2 Micromechanical Modeling 180
10.5 Stabilization of Tetragonal Zirconia 182
10.6 Production and Properties of Y-TZP Ceramics 183
10.7 Different Factors Influencing Transformation Toughening 184
10.7.1 Grain Size 187
10.7.2 Grain Shape and Grain Boundary Phase 188
10.7.3 Yttria Content 192
10.7.4 Yttria Distribution 193
10.7.5 MS Temperature 197
10.7.6 Transformation Zone Size and Shape 197
10.7.7 Residual Stress 199
10.8 Additional Toughening Mechanisms 199
10.8.1 Stress-Induced Microcracking 200
10.8.2 Ferroelastic Toughening 201
10.9 Coupled Toughening Response 203
10.10 Toughness Optimization in Y-TZP-Based Composites 203
10.10.1 Influence of Thermal Residual Stresses 206
10.10.2 Influence of Zirconia Matrix Stabilization 207
10.11 Outlook 208
References 208
11. S-Phase Si Al ON Ceramics: Microstructure and Properties 215
11.1 Introduction 215
11.2 Materials Processing and Property Measurements 216
11.3 Microstructural Development 217
11.4 Mechanical Properties 220
11.4.1 Load-Dependent Hardness Properties 226
11.4.2 R-Curve Behavior 228
11.5 Concluding Remarks 230
References 232
12. Toughness and Tribological Properties of MAX Phases 234
12.1 Emergence of MAX Phases 234
12.2 Classification of MAX Phases 235
12.3 Damage Tolerance of MAX Phases 238
12.4 Wear of Ti3Si C2 MAX Phase 244
12.5 Concluding Remarks 254
References 254
Section Five High-Temperature Ceramics
13. Overview: High-Temperature Ceramics 259
13.1 Introduction 259
13.2 Phase Diagram and Crystal Structure 260
13.3 Processing, Microstructure, and Properties of Bulk Ti B2 261
13.3.1 Preparation of Ti B2 Powder 261
13.3.2 Densification and Microstructure of Binderless Ti B2 265
13.4 Use of Metallic Sinter-Additives on Densification and
Properties 269
13.5 Influence of Nonmetallic Additives on Densification and
Properties 271
13.6 Important Applications of Bulk Ti B2-Based Materials 281
13.7 Concluding Remarks 281
References 283
14. Processing and Properties of Ti B2 and Zr B2 with Sinter-Additives 286
14.1 Introduction 286
14.2 Materials Processing 287
14.3 Ti B2–Mo Si2 System 288
14.3.1 Densification, Microstructure, and Sintering Reactions 288
14.3.2 Mechanical Properties 288
14.3.3 Depth Sensing Instrumented Indentation Response 290
14.3.4 Residual Strain-Induced Property Degradation 293
14.3.5 Relationship between Indentation Work Done and Phase Assemblage 295
14.4 Ti B2–Ti Si2 System 296
14.4.1 Sintering Reactions and Densifi cation Mechanisms 296
14.4.2 Mechanical Properties 298
14.4.3 Residual Stress or Strain and Property Degradation 298
14.5 Zr B2–Si C–Ti Si2 Composites 300
14.6 Concluding Remarks 301
References 302
15. High-Temperature Mechanical and Oxidation Properties 305
15.1 Introduction 305
15.2 High-Temperature Property Measurements 309
15.3 High-Temperature Mechanical Properties 310
15.3.1 High-Temperature Flexural Strength 310
15.3.2 Hot Hardness Property 311
15.4 Oxidation Behavior of Ti B2–Mo Si2 312
15.5 Oxidation Behavior of Ti B2–Ti Si2 315
15.5.1 Oxidation Kinetics 315
15.5.2 Morphological Characteristics of Oxidized Surfaces 317
15.6 Concluding Remarks 317
References 318
Section Six Nanoceramic Composites
16. Overview: Relevance, Characteristics, and Applications of Nanostructured Ceramics 323
16.1 Introduction 323
16.2 Problems Associated with Synthesis of Nanosized Powders 326
16.2.1 Methods of Synthesis of Nanoscaled Ceramic Powders 326
16.2.2 Challenges Posed by the Typical Properties of Nanoscaled Powders 327
16.3 Challenges Faced during Processing 328
16.3.1 Problems Arising due to Fine Powders 328
16.3.2 Challenges Faced due to Agglomerated Powders 329
16.4 Processing of Bulk Nanocrystalline Ceramics 330
16.4.1 Processes Used for Developing Bulk Nanocrystalline Ceramics 330
16.4.2 Mechanisms Leading to Enhanced Sintering Kinetics on Pressure Application 331
16.5 Mechanical Properties of Bulk Ceramic Nanomaterials 332
16.5.1 Mechanical Properties 332
16.5.1.1 Hardness and Yield Strength 332
16.5.1.2 Fracture Strength and Fracture Toughness 335
16.5.1.3 Superplasticity 338
16.6 Applications of Nanoceramics 339
16.7 Conclusion and Outlook 341
References 343
17. Oxide Nanoceramic Composites 347
17.1 Overview 347
17.2 Al2O3-Based Nanocomposites 349
17.3 Zr O2-Based Nanocomposites 355
17.4 Case Study 356
17.4.1 Yttria-Stabilized Tetragonal Zirconia Polycrystal Nanoceramics 356
17.4.2 Zr O2–Zr B2 Nanoceramic Composites 357
References 363
18. Microstructure Development and Properties of Non-Oxide Ceramic Nanocomposites 366
18.1 Nanocomposites Based on Si3N4 366
18.2 Other Advanced Nanocomposites 371
18.2.1 Mullite–Si C 371
18.2.2 Yttrium Aluminum Garnet–Si C 371
18.2.3 Si C–Ti C 371
18.2.4 Hydroxyapatite–Zr O2 Nanobiocomposites 371
18.2.5 Stress-Sensing Nanocomposites 372
18.3 WC-Based Nanocomposites 372
18.3.1 Background 372
18.3.2 WC–Zr O2 Nanoceramic Composites 375
18.3.3 WC–Zr O2–Co Nanocomposites 380
18.3.4 Toughness of WC–Zr O2-Based Nanoceramic Composites 384
18.3.5 Comparison with Other Ceramic Nanocomposites 385
References 387
Section Seven Bioceramics and Biocomposites
19. Overview: Introduction to Biomaterials 393
19.1 Introduction 393
19.2 Hard Tissues 394
19.3 Some Useful Definitions and Their Implications 395
19.3.1 Biomaterial 395
19.3.2 Biocompatibility 397
19.3.3 Host Response 397
19.4 Cell–Material Interaction 398
19.5 Bacterial Infection and Biofilm Formation 400
19.6 Different Factors Influencing Bacterial Adhesion 402
19.6.1 Material Factors 404
19.6.2 Bacteria-Related Factors 405
19.6.3 External Factors 406
19.7 Experimental Evaluation of Biocompatibility 406
19.8 Overview of Properties of Some Biomaterials 413
19.8.1 Coating on Metals 413
19.8.2 Glass-Ceramics-Based Biomaterials 417
19.9 Outlook 418
References 419
20. Calcium Phosphate-Based Bioceramic Composites 422
20.1 Introduction 422
20.2 Bioinert Ceramics 424
20.3 Calcium Phosphate-Based Biomaterials 425
20.4 Calcium Phosphate–Mullite Composites 428
20.4.1 Mechanical Properties 430
20.4.2 Biocompatibility (In Vitro and In Vivo) 431
20.5 Hydroxyapatite–Ti System 434
20.6 Enhancement of Antimicrobial Properties of Hydroxyapatite 434
20.6.1 Hydroxyapatite–Ag System 437
20.6.2 Hydroxyapatite–Zn O System 439
References 443
21. Tribological Properties of Ceramic Biocomposites 448
21.1 Introduction 448
21.2 Tribology of Ceramic Biocomposites 449
21.3 Tribological Properties of Mullite-Reinforced Hydroxyapatite 450
21.3.1 Materials and Experiments 451
21.3.2 Effect of Lubrication on the Wear Resistance of Mullite-Reinforced Hydroxyapatite 451
21.3.3 Surface Topography of Mullite-Reinforced Hydroxyapatite after Fretting Wear 454
21.4 Tribological Properties of Plasma-Sprayed Hydroxyapatite Reinforced with Carbon Nanotubes 454
21.4.1 Bulk Wear Resistance of Hydroxyapatite Reinforced with Carbon Nanotubes 454
21.4.2 Nanomechanical Properties of Hydroxyapatite Reinforced with Carbon Nanotubes 457
21.4.3 Nanoscratching of Hydroxyapatite Reinforced with Carbon Nanotubes 461
21.5 Laser Surface Treatment of Calcium Phosphate Biocomposites 461
References 470
Index 472
Über den Autor
Bikramjit Basu, Ph D, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kanpur. He is currently on leave at the Materials Research Center, Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore, India. His research interests include processing-structure-property correlation in structural ceramics, including nanoceramics and nanocomposites as well as biomaterials and tribology of advanced materials. In recognition of his contributions to the field of ceramic and biomaterials science, he has received noteworthy awards from the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2004), the Indian National Science Academy (2005), the Metallurgist of the Year Award (2010) from the Indian government, and the NASI – SCOPUS Young Scientist Award (2010) from Elsevier and the National Academy of Sciences, India (NASI). He was the recipient of the Robert L. Coble Award for Young Scholars from the American Ceramic Society in 2008.
Kantesh Balani, Ph D, is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kanpur. His research focuses on the processing and characterization of carbon nanotube (CNT) based biomaterials, energy materials, and correlating mechanics at multiple length scales. He has received several recognitions as a Young Scientist, as well as a Young Engineer, for his contributions in the field of materials science.
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