This expanded second edition provides a concise overview of the main principles and reactions of heterocyclic chemistry for undergraduate students studying chemistry and related courses. Using a successful and student-friendly ‘at a glance’ approach, this book helps the student grasp the essence of heterocyclic chemistry, ensuring that they can confidently use that knowledge when required. The chapters are thoroughly revised and updated with references to books and reviews; extra examples and student exercises with answers online; and color diagrams that emphasize exactly what is happening in the reaction chemistry depicted.
Tabella dei contenuti
Biography v
Abbreviations xii
Introduction to Second Edition xiv
1. Heterocyclic Nomenclature 1
Six-membered aromatic heterocycles 2
Five-membered aromatic heterocycles 2
Non-aromatic heterocycles 3
Small-ring heterocycles 3
2. Structures of Heteroaromatic Compounds 4
Structures of benzene and naphthalene 4
Structures of pyridines and pyridiniums 5
Structures of quinolines and isoquinolines 6
Structures of diazines (illustrated using pyrimidine) 6
Structures of pyrroles, thiophenes and furans 6
Structure of indoles 8
Structures of azoles (illustrated using imidazole) 8
3. Common Reaction Types in Heterocyclic Chemistry 9
Introduction 9
Acidity and basicity 9
Electrophilic substitution of aromatic molecules 10
Nucleophilic substitution of aromatic molecules 13
Radical substitution of heterocycles 14
C-Metallated heterocycles as nucleophiles 15
Generation of C-metallated heterocycles 16
Dimethylformamide dimethyl acetal (DMFDMA) 17
Formation and hydrolysis of imine/enamine 18
Common synthetic equivalents of carbonyl compounds in ring synthesis 19
Cycloaddition reactions 19
4. Palladium in Heterocyclic Chemistry 21
Palladium(0)-catalysed (and related) reactions 21
Addition to alkenes: the Heck reaction 26
Carbonylation reactions 26
Cross-coupling reactions between heteroatom nucleophiles and halides – making carbon–heteroatom bonds 27
Triflates as substrates for palladium-catalysed reactions 27
Mechanisms of palladium(0)-catalysed processes 28
Reactions involving electrophilic palladation 29
Copper-catalysed amination 30
Selectivity 31
5. Pyridines 33
Electrophilic addition to nitrogen 33
Electrophilic substitution at carbon 34
Nucleophilic substitution 35
Nucleophilic addition to pyridinium salts 36
C-metallated pyridines 37
Palladium(0)-catalysed reactions 39
Oxidation and reduction 39
Pericyclic reactions 40
Alkyl and carboxylic acid substituents 40
Oxygen substituents 41
N-Oxides 42
Amine substituents 43
Ring synthesis – disconnections 43
Synthesis of pyridines from 1, 5-dicarbonyl compounds 44
Synthesis of pyridines from an aldehyde, two equivalents of a 1, 3-dicarbonyl compound and ammonia 45
Synthesis of pyridines from 1, 3-dicarbonyl compounds and a C2N unit 45
Exercises 47
6. Diazines 48
Electrophilic addition to nitrogen 49
Electrophilic substitution at carbon 49
Nucleophilic substitution 50
Radical substitution 52
C-Metallated diazines 52
Palladium(0)-catalysed reactions 53
Pericyclic reactions 54
Oxygen substituents 55
N-Oxides 57
Amine substituents 57
Ring synthesis – disconnections 58
Synthesis of pyridazines from 1, 4-dicarbonyl compounds 58
Synthesis of pyrimidines from 1, 3-dicarbonyl compounds 58
Synthesis of pyrazines from 1, 2-dicarbonyl compounds 59
Synthesis of pyrazines from α-amino-carbonyl compounds 60
Benzodiazines 60
Exercises 61
7. Quinolines and Isoquinolines 62
Electrophilic addition to nitrogen 62
Electrophilic substitution at carbon 62
Nucleophilic substitution 63
Nucleophilic addition to quinolinium/isoquinolinium salts 64
C-Metallated quinolines and isoquinolines 65
Palladium(0)-catalysed reactions 65
Oxidation and reduction 66
Alkyl substituents 66
Oxygen substituents 67
N-Oxides 67
Ring synthesis – disconnections 67
Synthesis of quinolines from anilines 67
Synthesis of quinolines from ortho-aminoaryl ketones or aldehydes 68
Synthesis of isoquinolines from 2-arylethamines 69
Synthesis of isoquinolines from aryl-aldehydes and an aminoacetaldehyde acetal 69
Synthesis of isoquinolines from ortho-alkynyl aryl-aldehydes or corresponding imines 70
Exercises 70
8. Pyryliums, Benzopyryliums, Pyrones and Benzopyrones 71
Pyrylium salts 71
Electrophiles 71
Nucleophilic addition 71
Ring-opening reactions of 2H-pyrans 71
Oxygen substituents – pyrones and benzopyrones 73
Ring synthesis of pyryliums from 1, 5-diketones 74
Ring synthesis of 4-pyrones from 1, 3, 5-triketones 75
Ring synthesis of 2-pyrones from 1, 3-keto-aldehydes 75
Ring synthesis of 1-benzopyryliums, coumarins and chromones 76
Exercises 77
9. Pyrroles 78
Electrophilic substitution at carbon 78
N-Deprotonation and N-metallated pyrroles 80
C-Metallated pyrroles 80
Palladium(0)-catalysed reactions 81
Oxidation and reduction 81
Pericyclic reactions 82
Reactivity of side-chain substituents 82
The ‘pigments of life’ 82
Ring synthesis – disconnections 83
Synthesis of pyrroles from 1, 4-dicarbonyl compounds 83
Synthesis of pyrroles from α-amino-ketones 83
Synthesis of pyrroles using isocyanides 84
Exercises 85
10. Indoles 86
Electrophilic substitution at carbon 86
N-Deprotonation and N-metallated indoles 89
C-Metallated indoles 90
Palladium(0)-catalysed reactions 91
Oxidation and reduction 92
Pericyclic reactions 92
Reactivity of side-chain substituents 93
Oxygen substituents 94
Ring synthesis – disconnections 94
Synthesis of indoles from arylhydrazones 94
Synthesis of indoles from ortho-nitrotoluenes 95
Synthesis of indoles from ortho-aminoaryl alkynes 96
Synthesis of indoles from ortho-alkylaryl isocyanides 96
Synthesis of indoles from ortho-acyl anilides 96
Synthesis of isatins from anilines 97
Synthesis of oxindoles from anilines 97
Synthesis of indoxyls from anthranilic acids 97
Azaindoles 97
Exercises 98
11. Furans and Thiophenes 99
Electrophilic substitution at carbon 99
C-Metallated thiophenes and furans 101
Palladium(0)-catalysed reactions 102
Oxidation and reduction 102
Pericyclic reactions 103
Oxygen substituents 104
Ring synthesis – disconnections 105
Synthesis of furans and thiophenes from 1, 4-dicarbonyl compounds 105
Exercises 106
12. 1, 2-Azoles and 1, 3-Azoles 107
Introduction 107
Electrophilic addition to N 107
Electrophilic substitution at C 109
Nucleophilic substitution of halogen 110
N-Deprotonation and N-metallated imidazoles and pyrazoles 110
C-Metallated N-substituted imidazoles and pyrazoles, and C-metallated thiazoles and isothiazoles 111
C-Deprotonation of oxazoles and isoxazoles 112
Palladium(0)-catalysed reactions 113
1, 3-Azolium ylides 113
Reductions 114
Pericyclic reactions 114
Oxygen and amine substituents 115
1, 3-Azoles ring synthesis – disconnections 116
Synthesis of thiazoles and imidazoles from α-halo-ketones 116
Synthesis of 1, 3-azoles from 1, 4-dicarbonyl compounds 117
Synthesis of 1, 3-azoles using tosylmethyl isocyanide 118
Synthesis of 1, 3-azoles via dehydrogenation 118
1, 2-Azoles ring synthesis – disconnections 119
Synthesis of pyrazoles and isoxazoles from 1, 3-dicarbonyl compounds 119
Synthesis of isoxazoles and pyrazoles from alkynes 120
Synthesis of isothiazoles from α-amino α, β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds 121
Exercises 121
13. Purines 122
Electrophilic addition to nitrogen 124
Electrophilic substitution at carbon 125
N-Deprotonation and N-metallated purines 125
Oxidation 126
Nucleophilic substitution 126
C-Metallated purines by direct deprotonation or halogen–metal exchange 128
Palladium(0)-catalysed reactions 128
Purines with oxygen and amine substituents 128
Ring synthesis – disconnections 130
Synthesis of purines from 4, 5-diaminopyrimidines 130
Synthesis of purines from 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide 131
‘One-step syntheses’ 131
Exercises 131
14. Heterocycles with More than Two Heteroatoms: Higher Azoles (5-Membered) and Higher Azines (6-Membered) 132
Higher Azoles 132
Introduction 132
Higher azoles containing nitrogen as the only ring heteroatom: triazoles, tetrazole and pentazole 132
Benzotriazole 136
Higher azoles also containing ring sulfur or oxygen: oxa- and thiadiazoles 137
Higher azines 139
Exercises 142
15. Heterocycles with Ring-Junction Nitrogen (Bridgehead Nitrogen) 143
Introduction 143
Indolizine 144
Azaindolizines 144
Synthesis of indolizines and azaindolizines 146
Quinoliziniums and quinolizinones 147
Heteropyrrolizines (pyrrolizines containing additional heteroatoms) 148
Cyclazines 148
Exercises 149
16. Non-Aromatic Heterocycles 150
Introduction 150
Three-membered rings 150
Four-membered rings 153
Five- and six-membered rings 153
Ring synthesis 155
17. Heterocycles in Nature 158
Heterocyclic α-amino acids and related substances 158
Heterocyclic vitamins – co-enzymes 159
Porphobilinogen and the ‘Pigments of Life’ 162
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the store of genetic information, and ribonucleic acid (RNA), its deliverer 163
Heterocyclic secondary metabolites 165
18. Heterocycles in Medicine 167
Medicinal chemistry – how drugs function 167
Drug discovery 168
Drug development 169
The neurotransmitters 169
Histamine 170
Acetylcholine (ACh) 171
Anticholinesterase agents 172
5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) (serotonin) 172
Adrenaline and noradrenaline 173
Other significant cardiovascular drugs 173
Drugs acting specifically on the CNS 173
Other enzyme inhibitors 174
Anti-infective agents 175
Antiparasitic drugs 175
Antibacterial drugs 176
Antiviral drugs 177
Anticancer drugs 177
Photochemotherapy 178
19. Applications and Occurrences of Heterocycles in Everyday Life 180
Introduction 180
Dyes and pigments 180
Polymers 181
Pesticides 182
Explosives 184
Food and drink 186
Heterocyclic chemistry of cooking 187
Natural and synthetic food colours 190
Flavours and fragrances (F&F) 190
Toxins 192
Electrical and electronic 193
Index 195
Circa l’autore
Professor Emeritus John Joule, Chemistry Department, The University of Manchester, UKProfessor Joule worked for 41 years at the University of Manchester before being appointed Professor Emeritus in 2004. Sabbatical periods were spent at the University of Ibadan, Nigeria, Johns Hopkins Medical School, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, and the University of Maryland, Baltimore County. He was William Evans Visiting Fellow at Otago University, New Zealand. He has taught many courses on heterocyclic chemistry to industry and academe in the UK and elsewhere. He is currently Associate Editor for Tetrahedron Letters, Scientific Editor for Arkivoc, and Co-Editor of the annual Progress in Heterocyclic Chemistry. He is co-author with Keith Mills of the leading textbook in the field, Heterocyclic Chemistry (Wiley, 5th Edition 2010).
Dr Keith Mills, Independent Consultant, UKDr Mills worked in Medicinal Chemistry and Development Chemistry departments of Glaxo Smith Kline for a total of 25 years. Since leaving GSK he has been an independent consultant to small pharmaceutical companies. Dr. Mills has worked in several areas of medicine and many areas of organic chemistry, but with particular emphasis on heterocyclic chemistry and the applications of transition metal-catalysed reactions. With John Joule he is co-author of the leading textbook in the field, Heterocyclic Chemistry (Wiley, 5th Edition 2010).
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