Enables readers to assess, manage and prevent damage from the environment’s biggest enemy: microplastics
Microplastics in the Environment addresses the biggest unresolved pollution issue: microplastics accumulating in the environment at a rapidly growing rate, giving rise to severe ecological stress and novel diseases in both aquatic and terrestrial organisms. This book is a one-stop resource that ties together the latest developments in this fast-moving field, including analytical techniques, risk assessment methods and predictive approaches, and evaluates different strategies that make it possible to minimize and redress microplastics pollution in the near and distant future.
The book is organized into three main parts. Part one explains the fundamental ideas underlying microplastics, including their classification, major sources, detection and characterisation, as well as risk assessment methods. The second part covers the fate and transport of microplastics in various environmental domains, their interaction with ecosystems and the exposure of humans to environment-borne microplastics. The final part surveys current and future approaches to limit and remove the environmental effects of microplastics, from replacement of plastics with biodegradable substitutes to more efficient recycling of plastics to their active removal and remediation.
Microplastics in the Environment includes information on:
- Microplastics’ interaction with agricultural crops, the food and construction industries and water and solid waste pollution control systems
- Microplastics in microbial communities, crops and soil and the subsequent impacts on microbial metabolism, plant growth and geo-chemical properties of soil, respectively
- Consumption of microplastics by aquatic life and consequent effects of microplastics on the development of aquatic organisms including corals, invertebrates and marine and freshwater biota
- Global strategies, existing regulations and policies focused on microplastics management
With its emphasis on management and remediation, Microplastics in the Environment is a valuable resource for environmental scientists, government agencies and researchers working in the field of microplastics pollution.
Tabella dei contenuti
Preface xvii
Notes on Editors xix
Section I The Existence and Characterization of Microplastics 1
1 Introduction and Book Overview 3
Yasser Bashir, Nehaun Zargar, Neha Sharma, Almeenu Rasheed, Sovik Das, Makarand M. Ghangrekar, Puspendu Bhunia, Bashir M. Al-Hashimi, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Chih-Ming Kao
1.1 Background and Definition 3
1.2 Impacts of MPs on the Environment, Society, and Economics 7
1.3 Solutions, Knowledge Gaps, and Challenges 9
1.4 Policies and Practices to Regulate MPs 10
1.5 Book Structure and Overview of Chapters 11
1.6 Conclusion 12
References 13
2 Classifications and Physiochemical Properties of Microplastics 17
Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Puspendu Bhunia, Arindam Sarkar, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Structural Properties 21
2.2.1 Crystallinity 21
2.2.2 Particle Size 23
2.2.3 Surface Morphology 25
2.2.4 Intra- and Interparticular Interactions 27
2.3 Physical Properties 28
2.3.1 Density and Specific Gravity 28
2.3.2 Specific Surface Area 30
2.4 Chemical Properties 31
2.4.1 Hydrophobicity 31
2.4.2 Solubility 31
2.4.3 Chemical Composition 32
2.5 Thermal Stability 33
2.6 Conclusion 34
References 35
3 Degradation of Plastics and Formation of Primary and Secondary Microplastics 43
Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Puspendu Bhunia, Arindam Sarkar, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Physical and Mechanical Degradation 46
3.2.1 Photodegradation of Plastics 46
3.2.2 Thermal Degradation of Plastics 49
3.2.3 Mechanical Degradation of Plastics 49
3.3 Chemical Degradation 50
3.4 Biological Degradation 51
3.5 Degradation Pathway 54
3.6 Degradation Products and Byproducts 58
3.7 Toxicity of Products and Byproducts 59
3.8 Conclusion 61
References 61
4 Advanced Techniques for Sampling, Quantification, and Characterization of Microplastics 69
Chathura Dhanasinghe, Chih-Ming Kao, Pu-Fong Liu, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Bashir M. Al-Hashimi
4.1 Screening 69
4.2 Sampling and Extraction 71
4.2.1 Surface 72
4.2.2 Aquatic Samples 78
4.2.3 Dust/Sediment/Tissues 81
4.3 Characterization for Size, Shape, and Chemical Composition 84
4.3.1 Filtration/Density Separation 85
4.3.2 Visual Inspection 85
4.3.3 Optical Analytical Methods 86
4.3.4 Thermal Analysis 87
4.4 Quantification 88
4.5 Harmonizing Approaches and Valuable Minimal Technical Criteria and Specification 90
4.6 Quality Assurance/Quality Control 95
4.7 Conclusion 97
References 98
5 Technologies for Polymer Identification and Monitoring of Microplastics Distribution 107
Akhil Gupta and Pratik Kumar
5.1 Introduction 107
5.1.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 108
5.1.2 Raman Spectroscopy 109
5.1.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry 110
5.1.4 Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectroscopy 110
5.1.5 Rapid Screening/Fluorescent Microscopy, High Throughput Analysis of Microplastics 111
5.1.6 Solid–Liquid–Liquid Microextraction Technique 111
5.1.7 Elemental Analyzer/Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry 111
5.2 Instrumentational Methods to Study Microplastics in Different Matrices 112
5.2.1 Water Samples 113
5.2.2 Sediment Samples 113
5.2.3 Biological Samples 115
5.3 Technologies for Measuring Nano-Microplastics and Determining the Relative Contributions of Particles of Varying Size, Shape and Chemical Composition 115
5.3.1 Quantifying the Micro Menace: Measuring Microplastics 115
5.3.1.1 Shape Matters: Unveiling Morphology 116
5.3.1.2 Demystifying the Material: Identifying Chemical Composition 116
5.3.2 Challenges and Emerging Solutions 117
5.4 Distribution and Monitoring of Microplastics 117
5.5 Review of Existing Monitoring Programs for Marine Microplastics 119
5.5.1 Aerial Monitoring of Plastic Pollution in the Marine Environment 121
5.5.1.1 The Role of Vertical Mixing on the Global Distribution of Microplastic 121
5.5.1.2 The Role of Bioturbation in Distributing Secondary Microplastics in Marine Sediments 122
5.5.2 Thermo Degradation Method to Assess the Distribution of Microplastics in Marine Sediments 123
5.5.3 Microplastic Dispersal from Point Sources in the Sea Region 125
5.5.3.1 Primary Sources 126
5.5.3.2 Secondary Sources 126
5.5.4 Spatio-Temporal Monitoring of Coastal Marine Plastics 126
5.5.4.1 Surveillance of Seafood for Microplastics 127
5.6 Other Techniques for Monitoring 127
5.6.1 Remote Sensing and GIS-Based Monitoring 127
5.6.2 SCADA-Based Monitoring 128
5.6.3 GIS Coupled with 3D Modeling 129
5.6.4 Future Applications of GIS 129
5.7 Conclusions 130
References 130
6 Characterizing Microplastics in the Context of Risk Assessment 135
Akash Tripathi, Makarand M. Ghangrekar, and Rao Y. Surampalli
6.1 Introduction 135
6.2 The TK/TD of MPs in a Representative Organism 136
6.2.1 Particle Translocation Within Organisms 138
6.2.2 Exposure to and Bioaccumulation of Additive Chemicals 140
6.3 Determining the Particle Size Range Where Any Toxicity Resides 142
6.4 Identifying Potential Uncertainties and Concerns 144
6.5 Determining Relative Levels of Confidence Regarding Toxicological Data 145
6.6 Conclusion 148
References 148
7 Understanding Environmental and Socio-economic Risks Associated with Microplastics 153
Azhan Ahmad, Monali Priyadarshini, Makarand M. Ghangrekar, and Rao Y. Surampalli
7.1 Background 153
7.2 Economic Impacts 154
7.3 Social Impacts 155
7.4 Environmental Sensitivity and Variability of Microplastic 157
7.5 Toxicological Impact of Microplastics on Aquatic Organisms 159
7.6 Strategies for Managing Microplastic in the Environment 161
7.7 Conclusion and Way-forward 162
References 163
Section II Microplastics in Different Compartments and Their Effects on Environments and Humane Society 167
8 Microplastics in the Environment: Sources, Distribution, Fate, and Transport 169
Hua-Bin Zhong, Ying-Liang Yu, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Bashir M. Al-Hashimi
8.1 MPs in the Aquatic Environment (Surface/Ground Waters and Ocean) 169
8.2 MPs in the Terrestrial Environment (Soil and Sediment) 171
8.3 MPs in the Polar Region 173
8.4 MPs in the Atmospheric Environment and Transboundary Transport 175
8.5 MPs in Food and Agricultural Crops 179
8.6 MPs Associated with the Construction Industry 180
8.7 MPs in Urban Environmental Management Systems 183
8.8 Contaminants Released from Aged MPs 186
8.9 Fate/Transport and Behavior of MPs in Pollution Control Systems 188
8.9.1 In Water and WWTPs 188
8.9.2 In Combined Stormwater and Sewer Overflows 189
8.9.3 In Sewage Sludge and Landfill Leachate 191
8.9.4 In Systems for Recycling and Remediation of MPs 194
8.10 Conclusion 200
References 200
9 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Various Aquatic Environmental Compartments 207
Mahima John Horta, Yerramilli Sai Rama Krishna, N. Seetha, and Pritha Chatterjee
9.1 Introduction 207
9.2 Transport Mechanisms of Microplastics in the Environment 210
9.2.1 Degradation 210
9.2.2 Beaching 212
9.2.3 Drifting 212
9.2.4 Dispersion 213
9.2.5 Flocculation 213
9.2.6 Sedimentation 214
9.2.7 Biofouling 214
9.3 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Riverine Environment 215
9.4 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Estuaries 226
9.5 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Marine Environment 231
9.6 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in the Subsurface 236
9.7 Conclusions 243
Acknowledgments 243
Nomenclature 244
References 247
10 Ecological Impacts of Microplastics and Their Additives: Exposure Risk/Toxicity Assessment and Fate/Transport of Persistent, Bio-Accumulative and Toxic Substances 259
Qamaruz Zaman Khaki and Pratik Kumar
10.1 Introduction 259
10.2 Creating Standardized Toxicity Tests for MPs 260
Particle Characterization 260
Experimental Design 261
Applicability for Risk Assessment 262
10.2.1 The Ecological Representative Organisms/Test Systems/MPs 262
10.2.2 What Do Microplastics Do in Different Cell Types? 263
10.2.3 Using Polydisperse, Environmentally Relevant Distributions of Microplastic Particles 264
10.2.4 Extrapolating In Vitro Results to In Vivo Effects 264
10.3 Dose–Response Analysis and Formulation of Standards 264
10.4 Acute and Chronic Toxicity of Microplastics 265
10.4.1 Carcinogenic 265
10.4.2 Noncarcinogenic 265
10.5 Chemical Risk Posed by Ingested Microplastics 265
10.6 Development of Health-Based Threshold 266
10.7 Effects of Exposure: Microplastics Transferred to the Consumers 266
10.7.1 Bioaccumulation/Biomagnification/Bioavailability 268
10.8 Are Microplastics Vectors (for Organisms or Chemical Pollutants in the Environment)? – Sorption of Potentially Toxic Pollutants on Microplastics 269
10.9 Connect Microplastics to Existing or Novel Adverse Outcome Pathways 269
10.10 The Relevant Receptors 271
10.11 Exposure Pathways 272
10.12 Exposure Pathway to MP Via Ingestion 273
10.13 Exposure Pathway to MP Via Inhalation 273
10.14 Exposure Pathway to MP Via Dermal Contact 273
10.15 Toxicokinetic/Dynamic Processes 274
10.16 MPs Plus Chemicals/Nanomaterials/Pathogens Attached/Sorbed on them –
Ecological Effects of Chemical Contaminants Adsorbed to Microplastics 274
10.17 Interrelationships Among Different Factors 276
10.18 Interaction of Microplastics with PBTs and Other Emerging Contaminants 276
10.18.1 Changes in Relative Risk of PBTs Sorbed to or Present in Microplastics 277
10.18.2 Changes in Relative Risk of ECs Sorbed to or Present in Microplastics 277
10.19 Conclusion 277
References 278
11 Interactions of Microplastics with Microbial Communities and the Food Web/Plants 283
Santosh Kumar, Akash Tripathi, Shraddha Yadhav, Srishti Mishra, and Makarand M. Ghangrekar
11.1 Introduction 283
11.2 Interactions of MPs with Natural Organic Materials, Crops, and Plants 285
11.2.1 Transport and Accumulation of MPs in Different Parts of the Plant 285
11.2.2 Exposure of Soil and Food Crops to Diverse Agricultural Plastics 286
11.2.3 Impacts of MP on Crop or Plant Reproduction and Growth 287
11.2.4 MP Contamination from Soil Mulching 288
11.2.5 MPs from Drip Tape Irrigation 289
11.2.6 Seed Casings/Row Covers for Frost Protection/Plant Trays and Bags 290
11.2.7 Use of Polymeric Materials for Slow Release of Agrochemicals to Crops 290
11.3 Interaction Between Microbial Community and MPs 291
11.3.1 Changes in Microbial Dynamics and Biota due to MPs 291
11.3.2 Role of Microorganisms in Eco-Remediation 293
11.4 Effect of MPs on Metabolic Activities of the Organisms 295
11.5 Leaching of MPs from Dumpsites to Soil 295
11.6 MPs from Silage Film for Storage of Silage 296
11.7 Change in the Geo-chemical Properties of Soil due to MPs 296
11.8 Effect of MPs on the Food Web and Food Chain 297
11.9 Are Biodegradable Plastics Less Negative Than the Others? 298
11.10 Biostimulation by Nutrients 299
11.11 Conclusion 300
References 300
12 Environmental and Toxicological Effects of Microplastics on Aquatic Ecosystems 311
Jin-Min Li, Hua-Bin Zhong, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
12.1 Background 311
12.2 Sources of MPs in Aquatic Environments 312
12.3 Consumption of MPs by Aquatic Organisms and Increase in Aquatic Leaching Rate 316
12.4 Transport of MPs in the Aquatic Trophic Level 317
12.5 Occurrence of MPs in Aquatic Ecosystems 318
12.6 Effects of MPs on Freshwater Ecosystems 321
12.6.1 Effects/Ecotoxicity of MPs in Freshwater Biota (Micro and Macro Organisms) 322
12.6.2 Effects on Different Developmental Stages of Invertebrates 324
12.7 Effects of MPs in Marine Ecosystems 325
12.7.1 Contamination of Seawater 325
12.7.2 Effects on Seabed Sediments 327
12.7.3 Implications of Plastic Adhesion to Corals Surface 329
12.7.4 Effects/Ecotoxicity of MPs in Marine Biota (Micro- and Macroorganisms) 330
12.7.5 Effects on Different Developmental Stages of Invertebrates 333
12.8 Increase in Toxicity and Impacts on Biodiversity 334
12.9 Conclusions 336
References 336
13 Human Exposures to Microplastics: Impact of Different Routes 347
Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Puspendu Bhunia, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
13.1 Introduction 347
13.2 Pathways of Human Exposure to Microplastics 349
13.2.1 Ingestion 349
13.2.2 Inhalation 352
13.2.3 Dermal Contact 354
13.3 Toxic Effects of Microplastics on Human Beings 356
13.3.1 Oxidative Stress and Cytotoxicity 356
13.3.2 Disruption of Energy Homeostasis and Metabolic Disorder 357
13.3.3 Migration of Microplastics to the Circulatory System and Remote Tissues 358
13.3.4 Neurotoxicity 359
13.3.5 Destruction of Immune Function 360
13.3.6 Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity 361
13.3.7 Microplastics as Vectors of Microorganisms and Toxic Chemicals 361
13.4 Use of Biomarkers to Elucidate Microplastic Toxicity 362
13.4.1 Antioxidant Enzymes 362
13.4.2 Lipid Peroxidation 363
13.4.3 Deoxyribonucleic Acid Strand Breaks and Frequency of Micronuclei 364
13.4.4 Acetylcholinesterase Enzymes 364
13.4.5 IDH and Lactate Dehydrogenase Enzymes 365
13.5 Case Studies on Human Exposure 366
13.6 Conclusions 368
References 368
Section III Removal, Control, and Management of Microplastics 383
14 Plastic Pollution Management—Innovative Solutions for Plastic Waste 385
Saikat Sinha Ray, Randeep Singh, Mahesh Ganesapillai, and Young-Ho Ahn
14.1 Introduction 385
14.2 Design and Production 390
14.2.1 Using Different Synthetic Materials 391
14.2.2 Simplified Design of Products 392
14.2.3 Using Biodegradable Plastic 393
14.3 Packaging and Distribution 394
14.3.1 Reduction of Single-Use Plastic Packaging 394
14.3.2 Bans of Some Plastic Items 395
14.3.3 Better Labeling of Cosmetic and Cleaning Products 397
14.3.3.1 Plastic Types and Their Recycling Codes 397
14.3.3.2 Advantages of Labeling Plastics 397
14.3.3.3 Disadvantages of Labeling Errors on Efficient Recycling 398
14.3.3.4 Optimal Approaches to Plastic Labeling 398
14.3.3.5 Accurate Identification of Plastic Types 398
14.3.3.6 Adoption of Standard Labeling Practices 398
14.3.3.7 Clarity and Uniformity in Plastic Item Labeling 398
14.3.3.8 More Reuse of Plastics 398
14.3.3.9 Increased Reparability/Longevity of Products 400
14.3.4 Use and Maintenance 401
14.4 Disposal 402
14.4.1 Recycling (Primary Quaternary) of Plastics and Developing More Recycling Systems 403
14.4.2 Recovery/Cleanup 404
14.4.2.1 Developing Advanced Tertiary Technologies 404
14.4.2.2 Capture of Microplastics from Sports Fields and Playgrounds 406
14.5 System-based Approaches 407
14.5.1 Extended Producer Responsibility 407
14.5.2 Economy Approaches from Design to End-of-Life 408
14.5.3 Adding “Plastic Tax” to Make Any Plastic Product More Expensive 409
14.5.4 Education and Better Consumer Decisions 409
14.6 Conclusion 410
References 411
15 Preventing Secondary Sources of Microplastics in the Environment 417
Zaid Mushtaq Bhat, Asif Farooq, Mavra Farooq, Mariha Feroz, and Khalid Muzamil Gani
15.1 Introduction 417
15.2 Reducing Usage of Plastics 418
15.2.1 Global Awareness and Incentives to Prevent Disposal of Plastics 418
15.3 Recycle and Reuse of Microplastics 419
15.3.1 Incentives to Recycle and Reuse Microplastics 419
15.3.2 Change in Lifestyle 420
15.3.3 Production Processes and Recycling 420
15.3.4 Development of Techniques for Recovery of Microplastics 422
15.3.4.1 Density Separation 422
15.3.4.2 Pressurized Fluid Extraction 422
15.3.4.3 Electrostatic Separation 422
15.3.4.4 Magnetic Separation 422
15.3.4.5 Ferrofluid-based Separation 423
15.3.5 Recycling Plastic Wastes to Minimize Microplastic Pollution Load 423
15.4 Chemical Upcycling of Polymers 424
15.4.1 Polymer to Polymer Approach 424
15.4.2 Polymer to Molecule Approach 424
15.4.3 Polymer to Material Approach 425
15.4.4 Upcycling of Mixed Plastics 425
15.4.5 Thermal Upcycling of Mixed Plastics 426
15.4.6 Biological Upcycling of Mixed Plastics 426
15.4.7 Composite Approach of Mixed Plastics 426
15.5 Polymer Construction and Deconstruction 427
15.5.1 Sustainable Polymer Construction for Microplastic Mitigation 427
15.5.2 Strategies for Microplastic Remediation through Polymer Deconstruction 428
15.6 Cleaning of Plastic Waste from Environment 428
15.6.1 Management Strategies 428
15.6.2 Protection of Aquifers from Micro and Nanoplastic Contamination 429
15.7 Proper Monitoring of Plastic Waste 430
15.7.1 Management of Microplastic Waste Inputs to Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems 431
15.7.1.1 Management Strategies 431
15.7.1.2 Upstream Solutions 432
15.7.1.3 Downstream Solutions 433
15.8 Different Multiple Thresholds the Tiered Framework 434
15.8.1 Tiered Framework for Microplastics Concerns 434
15.8.2 Drinking Water Management Thresholds in California 435
15.9 Conclusion 435
15.10 Future Perspective 436
References 436
16 Reducing and Eliminating Plastic Waste via Societal Changes 447
Pu-Fong Liu, Chathura Dhanasinghe, Ying-Liang Yu, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
16.1 Introduction 447
16.2 The Importance of Consumer Culture and Behavior 448
16.2.1 What Are the Critical Societal Challenges in Reducing the Plastic Usage? 449
16.2.2 What Are the Potential Solutions? 450
16.2.3 How Might the Solutions Vary Regionally and Globally? 451
16.3 Reduction, Substitution, and Control of Microplastics From Human Usage 453
16.3.1 Redevelopment of Some Products 454
16.3.2 Substitution Using Eco-friendly Materials 456
16.3.3 Education and Awareness 458
16.3.4 Change in Lifestyle 462
16.4 Future Directions 464
16.5 Conclusion 465
References 465
17 Technologies for Removal and Remediation of Microplastics 469
Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Puspendu Bhunia, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
17.1 Introduction 469
17.2 Microplastic Remediation Technologies 470
17.2.1 Physical Technologies 471
17.2.1.1 Filtration and Membrane Separation 471
17.2.1.2 Adsorption 503
17.2.1.3 Density Separation 505
17.2.1.4 Magnetic Separation 507
17.2.2 Chemical Technologies 508
17.2.2.1 Coagulation and Agglomeration 508
17.2.2.2 Advanced Oxidation Processes 513
17.2.3 Biological Technologies 517
17.2.3.1 Biodegradation 517
17.2.3.2 Ingestion by Marine Organisms 520
17.2.3.3 Bioflocculation 521
17.2.4 Hybrid Technologies 521
17.2.4.1 Membrane Bioreactor 522
17.2.4.2 Electrocoagulation 523
17.2.4.3 Electro-Fenton Process 525
17.2.4.4 Microbially Driven Fenton Process 525
17.2.4.5 Constructed Wetlands 526
17.2.4.6 Vermifiltration 528
17.2.4.7 Other Hybrid Technologies 529
17.3 Conclusions 530
References 532
18 Catalysis for the Upcycling of Polymers 545
Debanjali Dey, Manisha Sain, Zahoor Manzoor, and Shamik Chowdhury
18.1 Introduction 545
18.2 Considerations for Substrates and Characterization 547
18.3 Application of Bio-Based Catalysts 549
18.4 Application of Electrocatalysts 550
18.5 Application of Chemical Catalysts 553
18.6 Conclusion 555
References 555
19 Biodegradable Bioplastics 559
Neha Sharma, Koran Barman, Nehaun Zargar, Almeenu Rasheed, and Sovik Das
19.1 Production of Bioplastics 559
19.2 Standards and Guidelines to Test the Biodegradability of Bioplastics 561
19.2.1 Biodegradation in Aerobic Soil Environment 561
19.2.2 Biodegradation in Freshwater Environment 561
19.2.3 Biodegradation in the Marine Environment 562
19.2.4 Biodegradation During Composting 562
19.2.5 Biodegradation in Anaerobic Digestion 562
19.2.6 Biodegradation in Aerobic Landfill 562
19.3 Application of Bioplastics 563
19.4 Limitations of Bioplastic 564
19.5 Environmental Sustainability of Bioplastics 566
19.5.1 Degradation Pathways of Bioplastic 566
19.5.2 LCA of Biodegradable Bioplastic 567
19.6 Economic Assessment of Bioplastics 569
19.7 Comparison of Bioplastic with Polymer-Based Plastic 570
19.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 571
References 572
20 Global Strategies/Policies and Citizen Science for Microplastic Management 577
Jin-Min Li, Ming-Fang Yu, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
20.1 Guidelines for Pollutant Control at Source 577
20.2 Enforcement of Legislative Measures 580
20.3 Existing Regulations and Acts in Global Scenarios 583
20.3.1 Microplastics and the UN Sustainable Development Goals 584
20.4 Public Perception and Participation 587
20.4.1 Education and Public Engagement 589
20.5 Community Analysis-Based Models 591
20.6 Conclusions 593
References 594
21 Life Cycle and Techno-Economic Assessment of Microplastics Remediation Technologies and Policies 599
Almeenu Rasheed, Divyanshu Sikarwar, and Sovik Das
21.1 Introduction 599
21.2 Technological Efficiency and Social Impact 599
21.3 Economic Aspect and Cost–Benefit Analysis 601
21.3.1 SWOT Analysis 602
21.4 LCA of Treatment Techniques 604
21.5 Conclusion 608
References 608
22 Case Studies on Microplastic Contamination with a Focus on the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic 611
Lourembam Nongdren, Sai Lahar Reddy, Biswajit Samal, Kumar Raja Vanapalli, and Brajesh K. Dubey
22.1 Introduction 611
22.2 Microplastic Contamination 612
22.2.1 Definition 612
22.2.2 Sources 612
22.2.2.1 Primary MPs 613
22.2.2.2 Secondary MPs 613
22.2.3 Route of Entry and Distribution of MPs into the Environment 613
22.2.3.1 Microplastics in Air 614
22.2.3.2 Microplastics in Water 614
22.2.3.3 Microplastics in Soil 614
22.2.4 Persistence and Accumulation of Microplastics 615
22.3 COVID-19 Pandemic: Impact on Waste Management 615
22.4 Interactions Between Microplastics and COVID- 19 616
22.4.1 Role of Microplastics as a Potential Vector 616
22.4.2 Impacts of COVID-19 Related Measures on Microplastic Pollution 617
22.5 Case Studies: COVID-19-Related Microplastic Pollution 617
22.5.1 Case Study: South Korea 617
22.5.2 Case Study: River Thames 617
22.5.3 Case Study: Microplastic Inhalation from the Facemask 618
22.5.4 Case Study: Freshwater Lake, Kerala 618
22.5.5 Case Study: Tamil Nadu 618
22.6 Environmental Consequences of Microplastics and COVID- 19 618
22.6.1 Impact on the Aquatic Ecosystem 618
22.6.1.1 Positive Impacts 619
22.6.1.2 Negative Impacts 619
22.6.1.3 Impact on Aquatic Species 620
22.6.2 Impact on Terrestrial Ecosystem 621
22.7 Human Health Risks 621
22.8 Mitigation Strategies 622
22.8.1 Implementing Sustainable Waste Management Practices and Responsible Disposal of PPE 622
22.8.2 Improvement of Municipal Waste Management 623
22.8.3 Enacting Policy Interventions 623
22.8.4 Investing in Research and Development 624
22.9 Conclusion 624
References 625
Index 629
Circa l’autore
Rao Y. Surampalli is President and Chief Executive Officer of the Global Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainability (GIEES) in Lenexa, USA.
Tian C. Zhang is Professor in the department of Civil Engineering at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL), USA.
Bashir M. Al-Hashimi is Vice-President for Research and Innovation at King’s College London, UK.
Chih-Ming Kao is Professor in the Institute of Environmental Engineering at the National Sun Yat-sen University in Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
Makarand M. Ghangrekar is Institute Chair Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India.
Puspendu Bhunia is Professor at the School of Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, India.
Sovik Das is Assistant Professor at the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India.
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