Applied Urban Ecology: A
Global Framework explores ways in which the environmental quality of urban areas can be improved starting with existing environmental conditions and their dynamics. Written by an internationally renowned selection of scientists and practitioners, the book covers a broad range of established and novel approaches to applied urban ecology.
Approaches chosen for the book are placed in the context of issues such as climate change, green- and open-space development, flood-risk assessment, threats to urban biodiversity, and increasing environmental pollution (especially in the “megacities” of newly industrialized countries). All topics covered were chosen because they are socially and socio-politically relevant today.
Further topics covered include sustainable energy and budget management, urban water resource management, urban land management, and urban landscape planning and design.
Throughout the book, concepts and methods are illustrated using case studies from around the world. A closing synopsis draws conclusions on how the findings of urban ecological research can be used in strategic urban management in the future.
Applied Urban Ecology: A Global Framework is an advanced textbook for students, researchers and experienced practitioners in urban ecology and urban environmental research, planning, and practice.
Jadual kandungan
List of contributors, xi
Foreword, xiii
PART I: INTRODUCTION, 1
1. Urban ecology – brief history and present challenges, 3
Ulrike Weiland and Matthias Richter
1.1 Introduction, 3
1.2 Brief history, 3
1.2.1 Initials in urban natural history, 3
1.2.2 Socioecological tradition, 4
1.2.3 Complex bioecological tradition, 4
1.2.4 Ecosystem-related tradition, 4
1.3 Recent and present challenges, 5
1.4 Purpose and structure of the book, 7
1.4.1 Purpose of the book, 7
1.4.2 Structure of the book, 8
References, 9
PART II: URBAN ECOLOGY: RELATED DISCIPLINES AND METHODS, 13
2. Thematic–methodical approaches to applied urban ecology, 15
Matthias Richter and Ulrike Weiland
3. Monitoring urban land use changes with remote sensing techniques, 18
Ellen Banzhaf and Maik Netzband
3.1 Land use changes and their consequences for urban ecology, 18
3.2 Urban remote sensing (URS) and geographical information systems (GIS) for research in urban ecology, 19
3.3 Measuring physical characteristics of urban areas with remote sensing technology, 21
3.3.1 Effects of urban form on natural and man-made hazards, 21
3.3.2 Urban dynamics and ecosystem function, 23
3.4 Global initiatives to measure urban expansion and land use change, 24
3.4.1 Global Urban Observatory of UN-HABITAT, 24
3.4.2 ‘The Dynamics of Global Urban Expansion’ – a contribution by the World Bank, 24
3.4.3 Socioeconomic data and applications Center (SEDAC) at the Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), Columbia University, New York, USA, 25
3.4.4 The ‘100 Cities Project’, Arizona State University, USA, 26
3.5 Regional urban monitoring activities, 26
3.5.1 Europe: ESPON, MOLAND and the Urban Atlas, 26
3.5.2 Governmental research projects on urban growth in the United States, 29
3.6 Synthesis and outlook, 29
References, 30
PART III: SELECTED FIELDS OF URBAN ECOLOGY, 33
A. PATHWAYS OF THE ECOSYSTEM APPROACH.
4. Quantifying spatiotemporal patterns and ecological effects of urbanization: a multiscale landscape approach, 35
Jianguo Wu, Alexander Buyantuyev, G. Darrel Jenerette, Jennifer Litteral, Kaesha Neil and Weijun Shen
4.1 Introduction, 35
4.2 Characterizing the spatiotemporal pattern of urbanization, 36
4.2.1 Quantifying urbanization patterns with landscape metrics, 36
4.2.2 Other methods for quantifying urban landscape pattern, 39
4.2.3 Effects of scale on the analysis of urban landscape patterns, 39
4.2.4 Examples from CAP-LTER, 40
4.3 Simulating spatiotemporal dynamics of urbanization, 41
4.3.1 Importance of simulation models in urban studies, 41
4.3.2 Approaches to simulating urban dynamics, 41
4.3.3 Examples from CAP-LTER, 42
4.4 Effects of urbanization on biodiversity and ecosystem processes: examples from CAP-LTER, 43
4.4.1 Effects of urbanization on biodiversity, 43
4.4.2 Effects of urbanization on soil biogeochemical patterns, 44
4.4.3 Effects of urbanization on net primary production, 45
4.4.4 Effects of urbanization on vegetation phenology, 45
4.4.5 Urban heat islands and ecological effects, 46
4.4.6 Ecosystem responses to urbanization-induced environmental changes, 46
4.5 Concluding remarks, 47
Acknowledgments, 49
References, 49
5. Designing urban systems: ecological strategies with stocks and flows of energy and material, 54
Peter Baccini
5.1 The challenge of a new urbanity, 54
5.2 Urban systems and their resource management, 56
5.2.1 Methodology applied investigating resource management of complex systems, 56
5.2.2 Relevant differences between agrarian and urban systems on a regional scale, 56
5.2.3 The resource management perspectives on a global scale, 58
5.2.4 The essential mass resources in the development of urban regions, 59
5.3 Strategies of reconstruction, 60
5.3.1 The 2000 watt society, 60
5.3.2 Transformation of urban regions in a ‘time of safe practice’, 61
5.3.3 The exploration of urban stocks, 61
5.4 Developing strategies for the design of urban systems, 63
References, 65
B. SOCIOENVIRONMENTAL THREATS.
6. Environmental and ecological threats in Indian mega-cities, 66
Surinder Aggarwal and Carsten Butsch
6.1 Urbanization dynamics and emergence of mega-cities, 66
6.2 Environmental threats, 68
6.2.1 Environmental threats from waste water and sewerage disposal, 68
6.2.2 Deteriorating air quality, 69
6.2.3 Urban wastemismanagement and environmental degradation, 71
6.2.4 Ecosystem damages and ecological footprints, 72
6.2.5 Threats from natural hazards, disasters, and climate change, 73
6.3 Mega-social challenges, 74
6.3.1 Poverty and fragmentation, 75
6.3.2 Rising vulnerabilities and insecurities, 76
6.3.3 Inequities and inequalities in urban services, 77
6.4 Concluding remarks, 78
Acknowledgments, 80
References, 80
7. From wasteland to wilderness – aspects of a new form of urban nature, 82
Dieter Rink and Harriet Herbst
7.1 Introduction, 82
7.2 Urban wilderness – some attempts at defining the term, 83
7.3 Wastelands as a source of urban wilderness, 83
7.4 Urban wilderness in planning, 85
7.5 On the ecology of urban wilderness, 86
7.6 Urban wilderness in a social context, 87
7.7 Educational value of urban wilderness, 89
7.8 Conclusions, 90
References, 91
C. FLOODING AND CLIMATE ADAPTATION.
8. Multiscale flood risk assessment in urban areas – a geoinformatics approach, 93
Norman Kerle and Dinand Alkema
8.1 Introduction, 93
8.2 Flood risk in the context of urban ecology, 94
8.3 Comprehensive flood risk assessment – Naga City, the Philippines, 96
8.3.1 Floods in Naga, 96
8.3.2 Naga’s flood management practices, 97
8.3.3 Model-based flood scenario studies, 97
8.3.4 Linking flood modeling with disaster management, 98
8.3.5 Naga as example for other flood-prone cities, 99
8.4 The role of remote sensing in flood risk assessment and management, 99
8.4.1 Quasistatic hazard data, 100
8.4.2 Dynamic hazard data, 101
8.4.3 Mapping elements at risk, 102
8.5 Disaster risk in the context of urban ecology – an outlook, 104
References, 104
9. Urban open spaces and adaptation to climate change, 106
Marialena Nikolopoulou
9.1 Cities, climate change and the role of open spaces, 106
9.2 Outdoor comfort, 107
9.3 Use of space, 108
9.3.1 Seasonal profile, 108
9.3.2 Diurnal profile, 108
9.4 Thermal perception, 111
9.5 Adaptation, 113
9.5.1 Physical adaptation, 113
9.5.2 Psychological adaptation, 113
9.6 Design interventions, 116
9.6.1 Materials, 117
9.6.2 Vegetation, 118
9.6.3 Shading, 118
9.6.4 Water, 119
9.6.5 Other measures, 119
9.7 Conclusions, 120
References, 121
D. URBAN BIODIVERSITY.
10. Social aspects of urban ecology in developing countries, with an emphasis on urban domestic gardens, 123
Sarel Cilliers, Stefan Siebert, Elandrie Davoren and Rina Lubbe
10.1 Introduction, 123
10.2 Social benefits and human perceptions of urban green areas, 124
10.3 Consequences of socioeconomic aspects on the urban green infrastructure, 125
10.4 Urban domestic gardens, 126
10.4.1 Literature review, 126
10.4.2 Case studies from the North-West Province, South Africa, 128
10.5 Conclusions, 133
References, 135
11. Plant material for urban landscapes in the era of globalization: roots, challenges and innovative solutions, 139
Maria Ignatieva
11.1 Introduction, 139
11.2 The beginning of plant material globalization, 139
11.3 Victorian Gardenesque (1820–1880), 140
11.4 Influence of the Victorian garden on the global planting pattern, 142
11.5 Victorian tropical and subtropical paradise, 143
11.6 Modern nurseries’ direction: global pool of plants, 145
11.7 Innovative solutions: searching for new ecological planting design, 148
11.7.1 Europe: United Kingdom, 148
11.7.2 Europe: The Netherlands, 148
11.7.3 Europe: Germany, 148
11.7.4 United States, 149
11.7.5 New Zealand: modern approach to planting design, 149
11.8 Discussion and conclusion, 150
Acknowledgments, 150
References, 150
E. ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN DESIGN.
12. Ecological infrastructure leads the way: the negative approach and landscape urbanism for smart preservation and smart growth, 152
Kongjian Yu
12.1 Introduction, 152
12.1.1 Urbanization in China challenges survival, 152
12.1.2 The failure of the conventional approach in urban development planning, 153
12.1.3 Green infrastructure leads the way: the negative approach and landscape urbanism, 154
12.2 The negative approach: methodology, 158
12.2.1 Process analysis, 158
12.2.2 Defining landscape security patterns, 159
12.2.3 Defining ecological infrastructure, 159
12.2.4 Defining urban form at the large scale: urban growth alternatives based on regional EI, 159
12.2.5 Defining urban form at the intermediate scale: urban open spaces system based on EI, 159
12.2.6 Defining urban form at the small scale: site-specific urban development alternatives based on EI, 159
12.3 Urban growth based on EI: a case of negative planning for Taizhou City, 159
12.3.1 Critical landscape processes, 161
12.3.2 Defining landscape security patterns for the targeted processes, 162
12.3.3 Defining ecological infrastructure, 164
12.3.4 Scenarios of urban growth pattern based on the regional ecological infrastructure, 164
12.3.5 Shaping urban form at the intermediate scale, 165
12.3.6 Shaping urban land development at the small scale, 165
12.4 Conclusion, 165
References, 166
13. Integrating science and creativity for landscape planning and design of urban areas, 170
Antje Stokman and Christina von Haaren
13.1 Introduction, 170
13.2 Landscape planning as a legally based contribution to sustainable development in Germany, 171
13.2.1 Tasks of landscape planning, 171
13.2.2 Methodologies of landscape planning, 172
13.3 Landscape design as a creative cultural action, 173
13.3.1 Tasks of landscape design, 173
13.3.2 Methodologies of landscape design, 174
13.4 Linking landscape planning and design: differences, interfaces and potential synergies, 175
13.4.1 A matter of timeline and scale: linking multidimensional perspectives on strategic landscape development, 175
13.4.2 A matter of perception and meaning: linking environmental goals and cultural concepts, 176
13.4.3 A matter of process and learning: linking management and experimentation to achieve adaptive landscape development, 178
13.4.4 A matter of involvement and experience: linking information and participation, 181
13.5 Conclusion, 182
Acknowledgment, 183
References, 183
14. Landscape as a living system: Shanghai 2010 Expo Houtan Park, 186
Kongjian Yu
14.1 Introduction, 186
14.2 Objective, 186
14.3 Challenges, 186
14.3.1 Pollution, 186
14.3.2 Flooding, 186
14.3.3 Circulation, 187
14.3.4 Transformation, 187
14.3.5 Identity, 187
14.3.6 Form, 188
14.4 Design concept and strategy: a living system, 188
14.4.1 Ecological landscape, 189
14.4.2 Three dimensions of meanings, 190
14.4.3 Experience network, 191
14.5 Conclusions, 192
F. ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN POLITICS.
15. Geographical perspectives on a radical political ecology of water, 193
Alex Loftus
15.1 Introduction, 193
15.2 The urbanization of nature, 194
15.3 Urban political ecologies of water, 195
15.4 Privatization questions, 196
15.5 Taking the debates forward, 199
15.6 Infrastructures of power: democratizing water technologies, 199
15.7 The everyday, 201
15.8 Conclusions, 202
References, 202
PART IV: SYNTHESIS, 205
16. Synthesizing urban ecology research and topics for urban environmental management, 207
Matthias Richter and Ulrike Weiland
Index, 213
Mengenai Pengarang
Matthias Richter, Environmental Scientist, Publicist and University Lecturer, Germany.
Ulrike Weiland is Professor of Urban Ecology at the Institute for Geography, University of Leipzig, Germany.
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