Ecosystem services are the resources and processes supplied by natural ecosystems which benefit humankind (for example, pollination of crops by insects, or water filtration by wetlands). They underpin life on earth, provide major inputs to many economic sectors and support our lifestyles. Agricultural and urban areas are by far the largest users of ecosystems and their services and (for the first time) this book explores the role that ecosystem services play in these managed environments. The book also explores methods of evaluating ecosystem services, and discusses how these services can be maintained and enhanced in our farmlands and cities. This book will be useful to students and researchers from a variety of fields, including applied ecology, environmental economics, agriculture and forestry, and also to local and regional planners and policy makers.
Inhoudsopgave
Contributors xi
Reviewers xiv
Foreword xv
Introduction xvi
Steve Wratten, Harpinder Sandhu, Ross Cullen and Robert Costanza
Part A: Scene Setting 1
1 Ecosystem Services in Farmland and Cities 3
Harpinder Sandhu and Steve Wratten
Abstract 3
Introduction 4
What are ecosystem services? 4
Ecosystem functions, goods and services 5
The ES framework 6
Engineered systems 7
Agricultural systems 7
Urban systems 10
ES and their interactions in engineered systems 11
2 Ecological Processes, Functions and Ecosystem Services: Inextricable Linkages between Wetlands and Agricultural Systems 16
Onil Banerjee, Neville D. Crossman and Rudolf S. de Groot
Abstract 16
Introduction 17
Linking ecosystem function with ecosystem service 18
Wetlands 19
Wetland functions 20
Wetland–agricultural systems interactions 22
Some research challenges 24
Understanding complexity and resilience 24
Trade-offs 25
3 Key Ideas and Concepts from Economics for Understanding the Roles and Value of Ecosystem Services 28
Pamela Kaval and Ramesh Baskaran
Abstract 28
How can ecosystem services be valued? 28
Ecosystem service valuation methodologies 31
Revealed preference methods 32
Stated preference methods 32
Other methods 33
How ecosystem services have been measured in the past 34
Ecosystem service valuation study recommendations 37
Conclusions 39
Part B: Ecosystem Services in Three Settings 43
4 Viticulture can be Modified to Provide Multiple Ecosystem Services 45
Sofia Orre-Gordon, Marco Jacometti, Jean Tompkins and Steve Wratten
Abstract 45
Introduction 45
Enhancing CBC in vineyards 46
Leafrollers and Botrytis cinerea in the vineyards 48
Habitat modification to enhance naturally occurring pest control 48
Floral resource supplementation as a form of habitat modification 48
Mulch application as a form of habitat modification 49
Combining two forms of habitat modification 51
The deployment of herbivore-induced plant volatiles as a form of habitat modification 51
Habitat modification may provide further ecosystem services 52
The future 55
5 Aquaculture and Ecosystem Services: Reframing the Environmental and Social Debate 58
Corinne Baulcomb
Abstract 58
Introduction 58
Aquaculture and the environment 59
A typology of aquaculture operations and the link to ecosystem services 60
Inland production systems 64
Overview 64
Case study 1: hypothetical integrated agriculture–aquaculture carp polyculture 65
Case study 2: hypothetical inland marine shrimp cultivation 68
Marine and coastal-based production systems 71
Overview 71
Case study 3: hypothetic nearshore, intensive and raft-based shellfish cultivation 72
Case study 4: hypothetical ‘best-case’ offshore aquaculture cultivation 75
The value of a complementary life-cycle approach 75
Conclusion 77
6 Urban Landscapes and Ecosystem Services 83
Jürgen Breuste, Dagmar Haase and Thomas Elmqvist
Abstract 83
Growing urban landscapes 83
The process of urbanization 83
Urbanization, biodiversity and ecosystems 86
Urbanization and management of ecosystems – challenges 86
Urban ecosystem services 87
What are urban ecosystem services? 87
Classification of UES 88
Land use – basic information on human influence on ecosystem services 88
Urban green – carrier of UES 89
Types of urban green space 89
Recreation 90
Climate regulation 91
Biodiversity 94
Carbon mitigation 95
Rapid growth of soil sealing – destruction of UES and its avoidance 95
Climate change – challenges for UES 97
Increase in temperature 98
Precipitation 99
Sea level rise 100
UES in urban landscape planning 100
Part C: Measuring and Monitoring Ecosystem Services at Multiple Levels 105
7 Scale-dependent Ecosystem Service 107
Yangjian Zhang, Claus Holzapfel and Xiaoyong Yuan
Abstract 107
Introduction 107
Scale 108
Ecosystem service is scale dependent 108
The ecosystem beneficiary is scale dependent 109
Ecosystem service measurement is scale dependent 109
Ecosystem service management decision making is scale dependent 112
Ecosystem service types 112
Ecosystem service studies need to consider scale 113
Case studies 114
Liberty State Park Interior 115
Qinghai-Tibet plateau 117
Conclusions 118
8 Experimental Assessment of Ecosystem Services in Agriculture 122
Harpinder Sandhu, John Porter and Steve Wratten
Abstract 122
Introduction 122
ES in agroecosystems 123
Provisioning goods and services 124
Supporting services 124
Regulating services 124
Cultural services 124
Field-scale assessment of ES 127
The combined food and energy system 128
New Zealand arable farmland 129
Scenarios of production and ES in agroecosystems 131
The ethnocentric systems 131
The technocentric systems 131
The ecocentric systems 131
The ecotechnocentric systems 132
The sustaincentric systems 132
Conclusions 133
Part D: Designing Ecological Systems to Deliver Ecosystem Services 137
9 Towards Multifunctional Agricultural Landscapes for the Upper Midwest Region of the USA 139
Nicholas Jordan and Keith Douglass Warner
Abstract 139
Introduction 139
Multifunctional agroecosystems 140
Re-designed agricultural landscapes for the Upper Midwest 141
Moving forward on design and implementation of multifunctional landscapes for the Upper Midwest 142
Theory of change: a social–ecological system model for increasing multifunctionality of agricultural landscapes 143
Focal level: enterprise development via ‘virtuous circles’ 143
Subsystem level: collaborative social learning for multifunctional agriculture 147
Supersystem level: re-visioning the social metabolism of American agriculture 148
Applying the theory of change: the Koda Energy fuelshed project 149
Enterprise development 150
Agroecological partnership 152
Re-shaping public opinion and policy 153
Conclusions 153
10 Supply Chain Management and the Delivery of Ecosystems Services in Manufacturing 157
Mary Haropoulou, Clive Smallman and Jack Radford
Abstract 157
Towards the sustainable economic production of goods and services? 158
Ecological economics and supply chain management: a review and synthesis 158
Conventional economic and ecologically economic production 158
Conventional SCM: economic efficiency through distribution network configuration and strategy 160
Green SCM: the economic inefficiency of waste 161
Sustainable SCM: connecting social, economic and ecological performance 162
Enabling ecological economics: SSCM 163
A case in point: ‘what do we do with it now?’ 165
WYM background 166
The economic production of wool yarn 167
Goods 168
Wastes 169
Ecological services and amenities 169
Natural capital 169
Human capital 171
Social capital 173
Manufactured capital 174
Community and individual well-being 175
Discussion 175
Conclusion 176
11 Market-based Instruments and Ecosystem Services: Opportunity and Experience to Date 178
Stuart M. Whitten and Anthea Coggan
Abstract 178
Introduction 179
Market-based instruments: definition and preconditions 180
Types of MBIs 180
Examples of MBIs for ecosystem services 184
Price-based MBIs 184
Quantity-based MBIs 186
Market friction MBIs 188
The brave new world of ecosystem markets 189
Designing effective MBIs 189
Where to next in the brave new world of markets for ecosystem services? 190
Epilogue: Equitable and Sustainable Systems 194
Steve Wratten, Harpinder Sandhu, Ross Cullen and Robert Costanza
Index 196
Over de auteur
Steve Wratten is Professor of Ecology at Lincoln University, New Zealand and Deputy Director of the Bio-Protection Research Centre there, one of the country’s Centres of Research Excellence. He has studied or worked at the universities of Reading, Glasgow, London, Cambridge and Southampton, UK. He holds three doctorates and is an elected Fellow of the Royal Society of New Zealand. His research focuses on evaluating and enhancing ecosystem services in agriculture, especially the biological control of pests, pollination, and below-soil processes.
Harpinder Sandhu is a Research Fellow in the School of the Environment, Flinders University, South Australia. His research focuses on ecosystem services in managed landscapes. Harpinder also works on poverty-environment interactions in developing countries with their implications for equitable and sustainable development. He is also interested in land use and land cover change and its impact on biodiversity and ecosystem services.
Ross Cullen has taught and researched at Lincoln University, New Zealand since 1991, as Professor of Resource Economics. He is an Editor of the Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics. His current research focuses on management and evaluation of biodiversity projects, ecosystem services in agriculture and forestry, and public perceptions of the state of the environment.
Robert Costanza is Professor and Chair in Public Policy at the Crawford School of Public Policy, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia. His transdisciplinary research integrates the study of humans and the rest of nature to address research, policy and management issues at multiple time and space scales, from small watersheds to global systems. He is co-founder and past-president of the International Society for Ecological Economics, and was chief editor of the society’s journal, Ecological Economics from its inception in 1989 until 2002.He is founding editor-in-chief of Solutions (www.thesolutionsjournal.org) a new hybrid academic/popular journal.
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