Sushma Dave & Jayashankar Das 
Point-of-Care Biosensors for Infectious Diseases [EPUB ebook] 

Preface xiii

1 Biosensors for Infectious Diseases-Fundamentals 1
Maheswata Moharana, Subrat K. Pattanayak, Fahmida Khan, and Sushma Dave

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Biosensors Fundamental Aspects 2

1.3 Classifications of Biosensor 3

1.3.1 Biorecognition Perspective 3

1.3.1.1 Nucleic Acid Biosensors 3

1.3.1.2 Protein–Receptor Biosensor 5

1.3.1.3 Enzymatic Biosensor 5

1.3.1.4 Whole-Cells Biosensors 5

1.3.1.5 Antibody-Based Biosensor 6

1.4 Transduction Through Signals 6

1.4.1 Electrochemical Biosensors 6

1.4.2 Optical 6

1.4.3 Thermometric (Calorimetric) 7

1.4.4 Mass-Sensitive 7

1.4.5 Electrical 8

1.5 Conclusions 8

References 9

2 Nuts and Bolts of Modern Biosensing Technology: Smart Health Diagnostic Devices 15
Itthipon Jeerapan, Gabriela Valdés-Ramírez, and Barbara Brunetti

2.1 Introduction 15

2.2 Nuts and Bolts for Point-of-Care (POC) Biosensor-Based Testing 17

2.2.1 Analytes 18

2.2.2 Receptors and Sensing Elements 18

2.2.3 Transducer 20

2.2.4 Signal Processing Unit 21

2.3 Advances in Biosensing Technology 21

2.3.1 Advanced Sensors for Detecting Pathogens 21

2.3.1.1 Biosensors for Bacteria Detection 22

2.3.1.2 Biosensors for Detecting Viruses 26

2.3.2 Advanced Biosensors for Monitoring Metabolites 33

2.4 Conclusion and Prospects 40

References 41

3 Disease Related Detection with Electrochemical Biosensors 49
Anulipsa Priyadarshini, Niharika Das, Saraswati Soren, Jashobanta Sahoo, Raghabendra Samantray, and Rojalin Sahu

3.1 Introduction 49

3.2 Electrochemical Biosensors 50

3.2.1 Materials 51

3.2.2 Working Principle 53

3.3 Immobilization of Different Biomolecules 54

3.4 Different Types of Techniques Used in EC Biosensors for Detection of Various Diseases 55

3.4.1 Voltametric Biosensor 55

3.4.2 Electrochemical DNA Biosensors 56

3.4.3 Impedance Biosensors 58

3.4.4 Amperometric Biosensors 58

3.4.5 Potentiometric Biosensors 60

3.4.6 Electrochemical Immunosensor 61

3.5 Conclusion and Future Direction 62

References 63

4 Biosensors for Point-of-Care (POC) Applications 69
The Flag Bearer of the Modern Medicinal Technology to Tackle Infectious Diseases
Sumit Kumar, Garima Rathee, Gaurav Bartwal, and Pratima R. Solanki

4.1 Introduction 69

4.2 Classification of POC Biosensors for Detection of Infectious Diseases 71

4.2.1 Electrochemical-Based Biosensor 71

4.2.2 Fluorescence-Based Biosensor 72

4.2.2.1 Direct Fluorescence Biosensors for Infectious Diseases 72

4.2.2.2 Signal-on/off Fluorescent Biosensors for Infectious Disease POC Diagnostics 73

4.2.3 Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR)-Based Biosensor 73

4.2.4 Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS)-Based Biosensor 73

4.2.5 Chemiluminescence-Based Biosensor 74

4.2.6 Colorimetric-Based Biosensors 74

4.2.7 Magnetic-Based Biosensors 74

4.3 Modern Devices for the Detection of Infectious Diseases 75

4.3.1 Lab-on-a-Chip Devices and Lab-on-a-Disc Devices 75

4.3.2 Microfluidic Paper-Based Analytical and Lateral Flow Devices 76

4.3.3 Miniaturized PCR and Isothermal Nucleic Acid Amplification Devices 78

4.4 Scope and Challenges Associated with the Next-Generation POC Devices 79

4.5 Conclusion 79

References 80

5 Organic- and Inorganic-Based Nanomaterials for Healthcare Diagnostics 87
Komal Kashyap, Maheswata Moharana, Fahmida Khan, and Subrat K. Pattanayak

5.1 Introduction 87

5.2 Nanomaterials Based on Carbon Allotropes in Healthcare 88

5.3 Inorganic Nanomaterials in Health Diagnosis 91

5.4 Organic Nanomaterials in Healthcare Diagnosis 92

5.5 Future Prospects 95

References 95

6 CRISPR/Cas System 101
Applications in Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases
Deepak Kumar Sahel and Mohd Azhar

6.1 Introduction 101

6.2 Nucleic Acids: Role in the Diagnosis 102

6.2.1 Deoxyribonucleic Acids 103

6.2.2 Ribonucleic Acids 103

6.3 Nucleic Acid Biomarkers in Infectious Diseases 104

6.4 Nucleic Acid Detection and Limitations 106

6.5 CRISPR/Cas System 108

6.5.1 Characteristics Features of Different Cas Effectors 110

6.5.2 CRISPR in Diagnostics 111

6.5.2.1 Cas9-Based Detection 112

6.5.2.2 Cas12-Based Detection 112

6.5.2.3 Cas13-Based Detection 116

6.5.2.4 Other Cas Effectors-Based Detection 117

6.6 Conclusion and Prospects 119

References 119

7 Role of Piezoelectric Biosensors 129
Jaykishon Swain, Subrat Swain, Durgesh Singh, Anirudha Jena, Raghabendra Samantaray, and Rojalin Sahu

7.1 Introduction 129

7.2 Types of Piezoelectric Biosensors 131

7.2.1 Inorganic Piezoelectric Material 131

7.2.2 Organic Piezoelectric Biosensors 133

7.3 Application of Piezoelectric Biosensor Devices 135

7.3.1 Immunosensors Based on Piezoelectric Material 135

7.3.2 Piezoelectric Device with Molecularly Imprinted Polymers 137

7.3.3 Piezoelectric Biosensors for Genetic Information 138

7.4 Conclusion 139

References 140

8 Metal/Metal Oxide Nanoparticles-Based Biosensors for Detection of Infectious Diseases 147
Dipak Maity, Gajiram Murmu, Satya R. Sahoo, Ankur Tiwari, Siddharth Ajith, and Sumit Saha

8.1 Introduction 147

8.2 Biosensors 148

8.2.1 Electrochemical Biosensors 148

8.2.2 Colorimetric Biosensors 150

8.2.3 Fluorescence Biosensors 151

8.3 Types of Infectious Diseases 153

8.4 Nanoparticles-Based Biosensors 156

8.4.1 Recognition of Pathogens 157

8.4.2 Metal/Metal Oxide Nanoparticles-Based Biosensors 157

8.4.2.1 Gold Nanoparticles 158

8.4.2.2 Magnetic Nanoparticles 158

8.4.2.3 Quantum Dots 159

8.4.2.4 Other Metal/Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 160

8.5 Metal/Metal Oxide Nanoparticles-Based Biosensors used for Infectious Diseases 160

8.5.1 Gold Nanoparticles (Au NPs) 161

8.5.2 Silver Nanoparticles (Ag NPs) 163

8.5.3 Platinum Nanoparticles (Pt NPs) 164

8.5.4 Copper Nanoparticles (Cu NPs) 165

8.5.5 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (Zn ONPs) 166

8.5.6 Miscellaneous Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 167

8.6 Comparative Studies of Biosensors for Infectious Diseases: Advantages and Limitations 171

8.6.1 Electrochemical Biosensors 171

8.6.2 Fluorescence-Based Biosensors 172

8.6.3 Colorimetric Biosensors 172

8.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects 173

Acknowledgment 174

References 174

9 Biosensors for Point-of-Care Applications: Replacing Pathology Labs by Bedside Devices 187
Mayukh Sinha, Sayak Banerjee, Sambit Majumdar, and Arindam Kushagra

9.1 Introduction 187

9.2 POCT Relevance in Healthcare 187

9.3 Self-Blood Glucose Monitoring 189

9.3.1 Introduction 189

9.3.2 Requirements for Self-Glucose Monitoring Device 189

9.3.3 Types of Sensor-Based Monitoring System 189

9.3.3.1 Continuous Glucose Monitoring (CGM) 189

9.3.3.2 Flash Glucose Monitoring (FGM) 190

9.4 Methods of Blood Glucose Monitoring 190

9.4.1 Enzymatic Assay Reaction 190

9.4.2 Detection Method 191

9.4.3 Errors Occuring in Blood Glucose Monitoring 191

9.4.4 POCT for Blood Glucose Monitoring 191

9.5 Blood Gas Analysis 192

9.5.1 Introduction 192

9.5.2 Methodologies 192

9.5.3 Electrochemical Sensors 192

9.5.4 Optical Sensors 192

9.5.5 Measurement of the Blood Gas Parameters 193

9.5.6 p H 193

9.5.7 Pa CO2 193

9.5.8 Pa O2 194

9.5.9 Glucose and Lactate Metabolites 195

9.5.9.1 Electrolytes 196

9.5.9.2 Hemoglobin, Bilirubin 196

9.5.10 POCT of Blood Gas Analysis 197

9.6 Urine Analysis 197

9.6.1 Introduction 197

9.6.2 Methodologies 198

9.6.2.1 Urine Dipsticks (Colorimetric Reagent Strip) 198

9.6.2.2 Lateral Flow Immunoassay (Rapid Test) 198

9.6.3 Measurement of the Parameters in the Urine Sample 200

9.6.3.1 Protein 200

9.6.3.2 Nitrite 201

9.6.3.3 Leukocytes 201

9.6.3.4 Bilirubin 201

9.6.3.5 Urobilinogen 202

9.6.3.6 Specific Gravity 202

9.6.3.7 Hemoglobin (Hb) 203

9.6.3.8 Ketone 203

9.6.3.9 p H 203

9.6.3.10 Glucose 203

9.7 Conclusion 204

References 204

10 Strategic Synthesis of Diagnostic Novel Materials Against Infectious Diseases 209
Hardik Shyam Churi and Sushma Dave

10.1 Introduction 209

10.2 Detection Needs at the POC 211

10.2.1 Nanomaterials for Malaria Parasites Detection 212

10.2.2 Nanomaterials for HIV 214

10.2.3 Nanomaterials for HBV 215

10.2.4 Nanomaterials for HPV 216

10.2.5 Nanomaterials for Dengue Virus 217

10.2.6 Nanomaterials for Ebola Virus 217

10.2.7 Nanomaterials for Mycobacterium Tuberculosis 218

10.2.8 Nanomaterials for Zika Virus 219

10.2.9 Nanomaterials for Biomarkers in Infectious Disease POCT 220

10.2.10 Nanomaterials for Pathogen Nucleic Acids 221

10.2.11 Nanomaterials for Antibodies and Proteins 222

10.3 Technology Advancements in Infectious Disease POCT 224

10.4 Futuristic Developments 224

References 225

11 Development of a Diagnostic Kit for Point-of-Care Biosensors: Fundamentals and Applications 235
Vijay Vaishampayan, Prabir Kulabhushan, Ishita Dasgupta, Ashish Kapoor, and Sarang P. Gumfekar

11.1 Introduction 235

11.2 Evolution of Biosensor 236

11.3 Biosensors for Point-of-Care Sensing 237

11.3.1 Fundamentals of Biosensor 237

11.3.2 Bioreceptors in Biosensor 238

11.3.3 Transducer in Biosensor 240

11.3.3.1 Electrochemical Biosensor 240

11.3.3.2 Potentiometric Biosensor 241

11.3.3.3 Amperometric Biosensor 241

11.3.3.4 Impedimetric Biosensors 241

11.3.3.5 Voltammetric Biosensors 241

11.3.3.6 Optical Biosensor 241

11.3.3.7 Gravimetric Biosensor 241

11.3.3.8 Acoustic Biosensors 243

11.3.4 Materials Used to Fabricate Biosensors 243

11.3.5 Biosensors for Infectious Diseases 243

11.3.6 Biosensor for the Detection of Dengue 243

11.3.7 Biosensors for Tuberculosis 246

11.3.8 Future Scope 246

11.4 Conclusion 247

Acknowledgment 248

References 248

12 Lab-on-a-Chip Devices for Point-of-Care Infectious Diseases Diagnostics 255
Snehal Jani, Vishakha Dave, Medha Pandya, Ranjeet Brajpuriya, and Sushma Dave

12.1 Introduction 255

12.2 Design of Lab-on-a-Chip Devices 257

12.2.1 Microfluidic Paper-Based Analytical Devices (μPADs) 258

12.2.1.1 Fabrication of Paper-Based Microfluidic Devices 259

12.2.2 Chip-Based Microfluidic LOCs 261

12.2.3 Chip-Based Microfluidic Device Substrate Materials 262

12.2.4 Fundamentals of Flow of Liquid in Microchannels 262

12.2.5 Sampling 263

12.2.6 Diagnostics Material/Biomarkers in Microfluidic Devices 263

12.2.7 Signal Generation and Detection 264

12.2.7.1 Electrochemical Method 264

12.2.7.2 Magnetic Particle Labeling 265

12.2.7.3 Optical Detection 265

12.3 LOC for Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases 266

12.3.1 LOC for Virus Detection 266

12.3.2 LOC for Detection of Bacteria 267

12.3.2.1 Future Perspectives and Conclusion 268

References 270

Index 275

Sushma Dave received her academic degrees in Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, and Environmental Chemistry from Jai Narayan Vyas University, Jodhpur (India). Since 1999, she has been teaching chemistry to students of engineering and basic sciences and is currently an Associate Professor at the Jodhpur Institute of Engineering & Technology.
Dr. Jayashankar Das holds a Ph D in Biotechnology and is an accomplished scientist turned into dynamic entrepreneur. He has 80+ International publications to his credit and practical experience from a wide range of research projects in the areas of Biosensors, Genomics, Bioinformatics, and Artificial Intelligence.