G. P. Baker & P. M. S. Hacker 
Wittgenstein [PDF ebook] 
Rules, Grammar and Necessity: Volume 2 of an Analytical Commentary on the Philosophical Investigations, Essays and Exegesis §§185-242

About the Authors ix
Acknowledgements x
Introduction to Volume 2 xii
Abbreviations xvi
ANALYTICAL COMMENTARY 1
I Two fruits upon one tree 3
1. The continuation of the Early Draft into philosophy of
mathematics 3
2. Hidden isomorphism 7
3. A common methodology 12
4. The flatness of philosophical grammar 19
FOLLOWING A RULE §§185-242 23
Introduction to the exegesis 25
II Rules and grammar 41
1. The Tractatus and rules of logical syntax 41
2. From logical syntax to philosophical grammar 43
3. Rules and rule-formulations 46
4. Philosophy and grammar 55
5. The scope of grammar 59
6. Some morals 65
Exegesis §§185-8 68
III Accord with a rule 81
1. Initial compass bearings 81
2. Accord and the harmony between language and reality 83
3. Rules of inference and logical machinery 88
4. Formulations and explanations of rules by examples 90
5. Interpretations, fitting and grammar 93
6. Further misunderstandings 95
Exegesis §§189-202 98
IV Following rules, mastery of techniques, and practices
135
1. Following a rule 135
2. Practices and techniques 140
3. Doing the right thing and doing the same thing 145
4. Privacy and the community view 149
5. On not digging below bedrock 156
V Private linguists and ‘private linguists’
– Robinson Crusoe sails again 157
1. Is a language necessarily shared with a community of
speakers? 157
2. Innate knowledge of a language 158
3. Robinson Crusoe sails again 160
4. Solitary cavemen and monologuists 163
5. Private languages and ‘private languages’ 165
6. Overview 166
Exegesis §§203-37 169
VI Agreement in definitions, judgements and forms of life
211
1. The scaffolding of facts 211
2. The role of our nature 215
3. Forms of life 218
4. Agreement: consensus of human beings and their actions
223
Exegesis §§238-42 231
VII Grammar and necessity 241
1. Setting the stage 241
2. Leitmotifs 245
3. External guidelines 258
4. Necessary propositions and norms of representation 262
5. Concerning the truth and falsehood of necessary propositions
270
6. What necessary truths are about 280
7. Illusions of correspondence: ideal objects, kinds of reality
and ultra-physics 283
8. The psychology and epistemology of the a priori 289
(i) Knowledge 289
(ii) Belief 291
(iii) Certainty 294
(iv) Surprise 298
(v) Discoveries and conjectures 300
(vi) Compulsion 305
9. Propositions of logic and laws of thought 308
10. Alternative forms of representation 320
11. The arbitrariness of grammar 332
12. A kinship to the non-arbitrary 338
13. Proof in mathematics 345
14. Conventionalism 356
Index 371

G. P. Baker was a Fellow of St John’s College, Oxford from
1967 until his death in 2002.
P. M. S. Hacker is an Emeritus Research Fellow at St
John’s College, Oxford, and Professor of Philosophy at the
University of Kent at Canterbury.