Jean-Claude Zerbib & Jean-Claude Amiard 
Radioactive Risk for Humans [PDF ebook] 

Preface xiii

Acronyms and Abbreviations xxiii

Introduction xxxi

Chapter 1 Radioactive Danger 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Radionuclides and radioelements 4

1.3 Radionuclide-related dangers 5

1.4 Elements of nuclear physics 6

1.4.1 Nuclear structure 7

1.4.2 Electrons 9

1.4.3 Stability of the atomic nucleus and nuclear reactions 10

1.4.4 Various types of ionizing radiation 12

1.4.5 Radiation properties 21

1.5 References 22

Chapter 2 Radioactive Contamination of the Anthroposphere 25

2.1 Introduction 25

2.2 Sources of radioactive contamination of the anthroposphere 26

2.3 Natural radioactive contamination of the anthroposphere 28

2.3.1 Natural contamination of physical environments 29

2.3.2 Natural food contamination 31

2.3.3 Natural contamination of seafood 31

2.3.4 Natural contamination of buildings 32

2.4 Anthropogenic radioactive contamination 33

2.4.1 Anthropogenic radioactive contamination of the physical environment 33

2.4.2 Anthropogenic radioactive contamination of seafood products 35

2.4.3 Anthropogenic radioactive contamination of other foods 36

2.4.4 Radioactive contamination of polluted sites 36

2.5 Conclusions 39

2.6 References 40

Chapter 3 Human Exposure to Radionuclides 43

3.1 Introduction 43

3.2 Types of exposure to ionizing radiation 43

3.2.1 The distinction between irradiation and contamination 43

3.2.2 Multiple exposure pathways 45

3.3 External exposure pathways 45

3.3.1 External exposure from natural sources 46

3.3.2 External exposure of artificial origin 47

3.4 Internal exposure pathways 49

3.4.1 Radionuclide penetration routes (contamination) 49

3.4.2 Internal exposures of natural origin 50

3.4.3 Internal exposure of artificial origin 50

3.5 Conclusions 50

3.6 References 51

Chapter 4 Radioactive Contamination of Food and Trophic Transfer 53

4.1 Introduction 53

4.2 Transfer of radionuclides from food to humans 53

4.2.1 Human digestion 54

4.2.2 Distribution of radionuclides in foodstuffs 55

4.2.3 Bioaccessibility 55

4.2.4 Bioavailability 56

4.2.5 Absorption factors during ingestion 57

4.3 Transfers from the environment to animal products consumed by humans 57

4.3.1 Food transfer coefficients 57

4.3.2 The influence of product processing 60

4.4 Transfers from the environment to plant products consumed by humans 61

4.5 Transfer from drinking water to humans 63

4.6 Environmental monitoring of products consumed by humans 64

4.7 References 66

Chapter 5 Human Bioaccumulation of Radionuclides 71

5.1 Human bioaccumulation of radionuclides 71

5.1.1 Transmembrane passage 71

5.1.2 Epithelial and cerebral barriers 73

5.1.3 Body distribution 74

5.1.4 Molecular mechanisms 76

5.1.5 Bioaccumulation of natural radionuclides 76

5.1.6 Bioaccumulation of artificial radionuclides 78

5.2 Protecting people from radionuclides 85

5.2.1 The search for chemical “radioprotectors” 85

5.2.2 The use of potassium iodide tablets in the event of a nuclear accident 86

5.2.3 Short and extended containment 87

5.2.4 Radiation protection is all about prevention 87

5.3 Therapeutic removal of radionuclides from humans 87

5.4 Conclusions 89

5.5 References 90

Chapter 6 Estimates of Human Radiation Doses 97

6.1 Introduction: from exposure to dose 97

6.2 Expressing exposure 98

6.2.1 Absorbed dose 98

6.2.2 Equivalent dose 98

6.2.3 Effective dose 100

6.2.4 Committed dose due to internal contamination 101

6.3 Limits to the estimation of effective doses 105

6.3.1 Modeling 105

6.3.2 Microdistribution 106

6.3.3 Transmutation 106

6.3.4 Interactions between radiotoxicity and chemical toxicity 106

6.3.5 Individual variability 107

6.4 Dose rates 107

6.5 Occupational doses 107

6.6 Collective doses 108

6.7 References 109

Chapter 7 Estimating Human Radiation Doses 111

7.1 Natural external radiation doses 111

7.1.1 Telluric exposure 111

7.1.2 Cosmic exposure 113

7.2 Natural internal radiation doses 114

7.2.1 Population exposure to radon 114

7.2.2 Internal exposure to natural radionuclides 119

7.2.3 Radon exposure of workers 121

7.3 Estimates of artificial radiation doses to humans 121

7.3.1 External and internal medical exposures 122

7.3.2 Exposure due to atmospheric nuclear blasts 123

7.3.3 Artificial exposure through food and drink 123

7.3.4 Exposure to seafood products 124

7.3.5 Occupational exposure 125

7.4 Some cases of human exposure 126

7.4.1 Guinea pigs 126

7.4.2 Estimates of exposure around nuclear facilities 128

7.4.3 Estimates of exposure due to fallout from Chernobyl and Fukushima 128

7.5 References 129

Chapter 8 The Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation at the Molecular and Cellular Level 133

8.1 Physico-chemical processes responsible for biological effects 133

8.1.1 Physical interactions of ionizing radiation with living matter 134

8.1.2 Physico-chemical reactions 134

8.2 The effects of ionizing radiation at the molecular level 135

8.2.1 The effects of ionizing radiation on DNA 136

8.2.2 Epigenetics 140

8.3 The effects of ionizing radiation at the sub-cellular level 143

8.3.1 The main cell organelles 143

8.3.2 The organization of DNA into nucleotides or chromosomes 143

8.3.3 The effects of ionizing radiation on genomic instability and mutations 143

8.3.4 The appearance of mutations 144

8.4 The consequences of irradiation at cellular level 147

8.4.1 Cell structure 147

8.4.2 The cell cycle 147

8.4.3 Cell division 147

8.4.4 Targeted effects of ionizing radiation 149

8.4.5 Non-targeted effects of ionizing radiation 149

8.5 Quantifying the effects of ionizing radiation using biomarkers 153

8.5.1 Biomarkers specific to the effects of ionizing radiation 153

8.5.2 Biomarkers specific to thyroid cancer 156

8.6 Conclusions 157

8.7 References 159

Chapter 9 Health Effects of Ionizing Radiation at the Individual Level 167

9.1 Introduction 167

9.1.1 Historical study of Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors 167

9.1.2 Assessment of doses received by survivors of bombs dropped on Japan 168

9.2 The adverse effects of ionizing radiation depend on the age at exposure 170

9.2.1 Adverse effects of ionizing radiation on the embryo and fetus 170

9.2.2 The harmful effects of ionizing radiation on children 175

9.3 Radiation-induced cancers in adults 184

9.3.1 The effects of high doses, acute radiation syndrome 185

9.3.2 The survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 186

9.3.3 Radiation-induced cancers as a function of gender 189

9.3.4 Effects on red bone marrow 192

9.4 Adverse effects of ionizing radiation on different tissues and organs 193

9.4.1 Effects on the circulatory system 195

9.4.2 Effects on the digestive system 196

9.4.3 Effects on the reproductive system 197

9.4.4 Effects on the lens 199

9.4.5 Effects on the integumentary system 203

9.4.6 Effects on the central nervous system 204

9.4.7 Effects on the respiratory system 204

9.5 The transgenerational effects of ionizing radiation 205

9.5.1 Hereditary transmission of genetic information 205

9.5.2 Findings on hereditary effects 206

9.6 Individual variability in the adverse effects of ionizing radiation 207

9.7 Conclusions 208

9.7.1 Effects of irradiation in utero and in early childhood 208

9.7.2 Effects of radiation on children 209

9.7.3 Effects of irradiation at puberty 210

9.7.4 Effects of irradiation in adulthood 210

9.7.5 Transgenerational effects 211

9.8 References 212

Chapter 10 Occupational Diseases Caused by Ionizing Radiation 221

10.1 History of the first radiation injuries caused by X-rays and radium 221

10.1.1 The first X-ray-induced cancers 222

10.1.2 A major survey of radiation-induced cancers carried out in 1914 222

10.1.3 The first radium-226-induced cancers 223

10.2 The creation and difficult development of the occupational disease recognition system 224

10.2.1 The long beginnings of the law recognizing occupational diseases in France 225

10.2.2 Contemporary knowledge of toxic substances and their deleterious effects 226

10.2.3 Implementation of the law on the recognition of occupational diseases in France 226

10.2.4 Treatment of radiation-induced diseases 227

10.3 Radiation-induced occupational diseases recognized in France since 1948 228

10.3.1 The first statistical data on recognized radiation-induced occupational diseases 228

10.3.2 Detailed data on recognized radiation-induced occupational diseases 229

10.3.3 Comparison of the risk of radiation-induced cancers with the risk of all occupational cancers in France 231

10.4 Diseases recognized in Europe 232

10.5 Conclusions 233

10.6 References 234

Chapter 11 The Dose–Response Relationship to the Effects of Ionizing Radiation 239

11.1 Introduction: the dose–response relationship 239

11.2 Dose–response relationships for high doses 239

11.2.1 Survivor studies 240

11.2.2 Other studies 241

11.3 Dose–response relationships for low doses 242

11.3.1 Epidemiological studies 242

11.3.2 Controversies over responses to low doses 256

11.4 Conclusions 265

11.5 References 266

Chapter 12 International and French Regulatory Values 277

12.1 Introduction 277

12.2 International expertise and organization 277

12.3 International and European recommendations and their evolution 280

12.4 Radiation protection standards and regulatory limits 281

12.4.1 Some examples of international radiation protection standards 281

12.4.2 European directives and transfer into French law 282

12.4.3 Changes in radiation protection standards over time 283

12.5 Radionuclide toxicity and radiotoxicity 283

12.6 Food standards 284

12.7 References 286

Chapter 13 General Conclusions and Perspectives 289

13.1 Introduction 289

13.2 Knowledge of the effects of ionizing radiation on humans 290

13.2.1 Assured knowledge of the effects of ionizing radiation on humans 290

13.2.2 Imperfect knowledge of the effects of ionizing radiation on humans 293

13.2.3 Towards a better understanding of the effects of ionizing radiation on humans 297

13.3 Strengths and weaknesses of the radioactive risk assessment method 302

13.3.1 Shortcomings in identifying radioactive hazards 302

13.3.2 Shortcomings in quantifying radioactive contamination of the anthroposphere 302

13.3.3 Shortcomings in the identification of exposure pathways 303

13.3.4 Shortcomings in estimating exposure doses 303

13.3.5 Gaps in the assessment of adverse effects at various biological levels 303

13.3.6 Shortcomings of the dose versus adverse effect relationship 303

13.3.7 Shortcomings in the choice of no-adverse-effect values 304

13.3.8 Shortcomings in the organization of official standards setting 304

13.3.9 Shortcomings in radioactive risk assessment 304

13.4 Towards a new approach to estimating radioactive risk 305

13.4.1 Limitations of the ICRP approach 305

13.4.2 Questionable parameters 307

13.4.3 The evolution of the ICRP’s concept of radiation protection 308

13.4.4 A new approach to radiation protection 309

13.5 Conclusions 310

13.6 References 310

Glossary 317

Index 319

Jean-Claude Amiard is a Doctor of Science (State) in radioecology, Director of Research Emeritus at the CNRS (University of Nantes, France) and former Associate Professor in Quebec and China. He is the author of more than 250 publications, 80 books/chapters and 150 communications at international conferences.
Jean-Claude Zerbib is an experienced radiation protection engineer. He has managed a laboratory specializing in nuclear analysis and the radiation protection of accelerators. He has also overseen radioactive waste management and measurement and site decontamination. He is the author of more than 140 publications.