Qingwei Liao & Yujun Song 
Characterization of Condensed Matter [EPUB ebook] 
An Introduction to Composition, Microstructure, and Surface Methods

Part I Fundamental of Universe, Matter, Condensed Matter and Materials 1

1 Universe, Matter, Condensed Matter and Materials 3

1.1 Features of the Universe and Fundamental Constants 4

1.2 Structure and Composition of Matter 9

1.2.1 Classification and Characteristics of Matter (Radiation Coupling and Energy Conservation) 9

1.2.2 Fundamental Particles 9

1.2.3 Fundamental Forces 11

1.3 Fundamental Constants Describing the Universe and Matter 15

1.4 Experiments to Study Fundamental Particles and Forces 20

1.5 Introduction to Condensed Matter and Materials 27

1.5.1 Classification of Condensed Matter 28

1.5.2 Structures and Compositions of Condensed Matter or Materials 30

1.5.3 Intrinsic Properties of Condensed Matter and Materials 32

1.6 Main Research Areas in Condensed Matter Physics 33

Questions for Thinking 34

References 34

2 The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory 37

2.1 A Brief History of Gravitational and Gravitational-Wave Measurements 37

2.2 Fundamentals of LIGO and Related Facility Development 39

2.2.1 Detecting Gravitational Waves 41

2.2.2 Educational Analogy Experiments 44

2.2.2.1 Herriott Delay Line 45

2.3 Key Components of the LIGO Facility 47

2.3.1 Coherent Laser Source and Laser 47

2.3.2 The Laser Interferometer Detector 47

2.3.3 Fourier Transform and Signal Processing System 48

2.4 Application of LIGO 49

2.4.1 Detection of a Supernova Explosion 49

2.4.2 Detection of Black Hole Fusion 50

Questions for Thinking 51

List of Abbreviations 51

References 51

3 Fundamentals of Crystallography: Microstructures and Crystal Phases of Condensed Matter 55

3.1 The Microstructure of Condensed Matter and Materials 55

3.1.1 The Microscale 55

3.1.2 The Hard-Sphere Model 56

3.1.3 Energy and Packing 57

3.1.4 Crystals, Quasicrystals and Amorphous Structures 58

3.2 The Unit Cell 60

3.2.1 Lattice and Motif 60

3.2.2 Lattice and Crystal Structure 61

3.2.3 Unit Cell and Unit Vectors 61

3.2.4 Unit Cells, Bravais Lattices and Crystal Systems 63

3.2.5 Unit Cells and Their Parameters 65

3.3 Crystal Structures (Phases) 65

3.3.1 Close Packing and Stacking 65

3.3.2 The Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) Lattice and its Parameters 67

3.3.3 The Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Lattice and its Parameters 69

3.3.4 The Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP) Lattice and its Parameters 70

3.3.5 Point Coordinates and Crystallographic Directions 71

3.3.6 Crystallographic Families and Symmetry 72

3.3.7 Coordinate Transformations 72

3.3.8 Crystallographic Planes and Miller Indices 73

3.3.9 Linear Density, Planar Density and Crystal Density 74

3.4 Quasicrystals 77

3.4.1 A Brief History of Quasicrystals 77

3.4.2 Phase and Structure Characteristics of Quasicrystals 79

Questions for Thinking 79

References 80

Part II Electromagnetic Spectroscopy 81

4 Elements of X-Ray Diffraction 83

4.1 Diffraction of X-Rays 83

4.1.1 The Kinematical Theory of Diffraction 85

4.1.2 The Dynamical Diffraction Theory 85

4.1.3 The Mechanism of the Interaction between X-Rays and the Unit Cell 86

4.1.4 Scattering of X-Rays and the Structure Factor of the Unit Cell 86

4.2 Development of X-Ray Diffraction 88

4.3 Generation of X-Rays 91

4.3.1 X-Ray Tubes: Cathode Ray Tube Structure 91

4.3.2 The Interaction of X-Rays with Matter 92

4.3.2.1 Scattering of X-Rays 92

4.3.2.2 Absorption of X-Rays by Matter 93

4.4 Applications 94

4.4.1 Crystal Phase Analysis 94

4.4.2 Determination of Inner Stress of Condensed Samples 97

4.4.2.1 Measurement of Residual Stress in Polycrystalline Materials 98

4.4.2.2 Measurement of Residual Stress in Single-Crystalline Materials 100

Questions for Thinking 101

References 101

5 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (XRF) 103

5.1 Theoretical Foundations 103

5.2 General Setup of an XRF Spectrometer 104

5.3 Types of XRF Analyzers 107

5.4 History and Current Status of XRF 108

5.5 Applications 109

5.6 Appendix 112

5.6.1 Analysis of XRF Spectra 112

5.6.2 Total Reflection XRF, Proton-Excited XRF and Synchrotron Radiation XRF Spectrometry 113

Questions for Thinking 114

References 114

6 X-Ray Emission Spectroscopy (XES) 115

6.1 Principles of XAS and XES 115

6.2 Classification of XES 118

6.3 History of XES and Common XES Spectrometers 119

6.4 Applications 119

Questions for Thinking 121

References 121

7 X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS) 123

7.1 The Physics of XAS 123

7.1.1 The Principle of X-Ray Absorption Near-Edge Structure (XANES) Spectroscopy 123

7.1.2 The Principle of Extended X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS) Spectroscopy 124

7.2 Generation of X-Ray Synchrotron Radiation 125

7.2.1 The Structure of Synchrotron Radiation Facilities 126

7.2.2 Synchrotron Radiation Facilities Around the World 127

7.3 Applications of XANES Spectroscopy 132

7.4 Applications of EXAFS Spectroscopy 133

7.5 Differences Between EXAFS and XANES 133

Questions for Thinking 134

References 134

8 X-Ray Raman Scattering (XRS) 137

8.1 Interaction of Light and Matter in XRS 137

8.2 A Brief History of XRS Spectrometers 139

8.3 Components of an XRS Spectrometer 141

8.3.1 X-Ray Scattering Crystal Detector 141

8.3.2 High-Resolution Crystal Detector 142

8.3.3 A Superlattice Thin-Film Mirror Surface as a Double Multilayer Monochromator 142

8.3.4 The Detection of Scattered Photons in XRS 143

8.4 Applications of XRS 143

8.4.1 Chemistry 143

8.4.2 Polymer Science 143

8.4.3 Materials Science 144

8.4.4 Biology 145

8.4.5 Chinese Herbal Medicine 146

8.4.6 Gem Research 146

8.4.7 Investigation of Cultural Relics 147

8.5 Summary and Outlook 147

Questions for Thinking 148

References 148

9 Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy 149

9.1 General Scope of FTIR Spectroscopy 149

9.2 A Brief History of IR Spectrometers 150

9.3 Basic Concepts 150

9.4 Setup of a Standard FTIR Instrument 153

9.5 Advantages of FTIR Spectroscopy 155

9.5.1 Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Linearity 155

9.5.2 Accuracy 155

9.5.3 Data Handling Facility 155

9.5.4 Mechanical Simplicity 155

9.6 Key Elements of an FTIR Spectrometer 156

9.6.1 IR Light Source and Laser 156

9.6.2 Michelson Interferometer and Beam Splitter 156

9.6.2.1 Michelson Interferometer 156

9.6.2.2 Measuring and Processing the Interferogram 158

9.6.2.3 Beamsplitter 160

9.6.3 Infrared Photodetector 160

9.6.4 Fourier Transform and Signal Processing System 161

9.7 Spectral Range 161

9.7.1 Far Infrared 161

9.7.2 Mid Infrared 161

9.7.3 Near Infrared 161

9.8 Application of FTIR Spectroscopy 162

9.8.1 Biological Materials 162

9.8.2 Microscopy and Imaging 162

9.8.3 Studies at the Nanoscale and Spectroscopy Below the Diffraction Limit 162

9.8.4 FTIR Systems as Detectors in Chromatography 162

9.8.5 Thermogravimetric Analysis 163

9.8.6 Emission Spectroscopy and IR Chemiluminescence 163

9.8.7 Kinetics of Chemical Reactions and Spectra of Transient Species 163

Questions for Thinking 164

References 164

10 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray (EDX) Spectroscopy of Elements 167

10.1 Principles of EDX Spectroscopy 167

10.1.1 Production of Characteristic X-Rays 167

10.2 A Brief History of EDX Spectrometer Development 169

10.3 Key Components of EDX Spectrometers 170

10.3.1 The X-Ray Generator 170

10.3.2 The Vacuum System 170

10.3.3 The X-Ray Detector 171

10.3.3.1 The Semiconductor Detectors 171

10.3.3.2 The Direct Detectors 172

10.3.3.3 The Indirect Detectors 172

10.3.4 The Signal Processing System 173

10.4 Applications of EDX Spectroscopy 173

10.4.1 Surface Penetration 173

10.4.2 Elemental Resolution, Reliability, and Errors 173

10.4.3 Characteristics of EDX Energy Spectrometers 174

Questions for Thinking 175

References 176

Part III Characterization Methods Based on the Particle (electron Or Electron Beam, Neutron)–matter Interaction 177

11 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 179

11.1 Interaction Between the Electron Beam and Matter 180

11.1.1 Elastic Scattering 180

11.1.2 Inelastic Scattering 181

11.2 Signal Detection 182

11.2.1 Primary and Secondary Electrons 183

11.2.2 Backscattered Electrons and Auger Electrons 183

11.2.3 The Relation Between Surface Topography and Secondary Electrons 184

11.2.4 The Relation Between Atomic Number z and Backscattered Electrons 184

11.3 History of SEM Development 185

11.4 Key Components of SEM Devices 186

11.4.1 Electron Beam Sources 186

11.4.1.1 Thermionic Electron Guns 186

11.4.1.2 Field-Emission Electron Guns 187

11.4.2 Electronic Detectors 187

11.4.3 Signal Processing and Imaging System 188

11.5 Application and Expansion of SEM 190

11.5.1 Analysis of Powder Particles 190

11.5.2 Fracture Analysis 190

11.5.3 Observation and Analysis Metallographic Structures 190

11.5.4 Dynamic Study of Fracture Processes 191

Questions for Thinking 191

References 191

12 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 193

12.1 The Interaction Between Electrons and Atoms 193

12.1.1 Transmitted Electrons and Bright-Field Image 195

12.2 Brief History of EM and TEM Development 195

12.3 Key Components of EM and TEM Instruments 198

12.3.1 The Basic Structure of a TEM 198

12.3.1.1 Illumination System 198

12.3.1.2 Electron Gun 199

12.3.1.3 Electromagnetic Lenses 199

12.3.1.4 Imaging System 201

12.3.1.5 Viewing and Recording System 202

12.4 Applications and Extensions of TEM 202

12.4.1 Analysis of Microstructure and Morphology 202

12.4.2 Element Distribution and Morphology Analysis Using EDX Combined with TEM 203

12.4.3 High-Angle Annular Dark-Field (HAADF) STEM 204

Questions for Thinking 205

References 206

13 Spherical-Aberration-Corrected Transmission Electron Microscopy (sac-tem) 207

13.1 The Principle of Spherical Aberration Correction 207

13.2 History of SAC-TEM and Spherical Aberration Correctors 207

13.2.1 The Development of SAC-TEM 207

13.2.2 Spherical Aberration Correctors 208

13.3 Applications of SAC-TEM or SAC-STEM 210

13.3.1 Atomic Structure Characterization 210

13.3.2 Surface and Interface Study 210

13.3.3 Differentiation of Light Elements 211

Questions for Thinking 213

References 213

14 Environmental Transmission Electron Microscopy (ETEM) 215

14.1 Design of Environmental TEM Instruments 216

14.1.1 Windowed Cell 216

14.1.2 Differential Pumping 217

14.2 Applications of ETEM 219

14.2.1 In-Situ Observation of Vapor–Liquid–Solid Growth in the Formation of Nanowires 219

14.2.2 In-Situ Reduction of Metal Oxides 220

14.2.3 Photocatalytic Splitting of Water 222

14.2.4 Particle Formation and Migration 223

14.2.5 Nucleation and Growth of Nanomaterials in Liquid Solution 224

Questions for Thinking 227

References 227

15 Holography 229

15.1 Principles and Foundations 229

15.1.1 The Holographic Principle 229

15.1.2 Electronic Holography 231

15.1.3 Characteristics of Electronic Holography 233

15.2 History 236

15.3 Applications of Electronic Holography 238

15.3.1 The Principle of Observing Electromagnetic Fields with Electronic Holography 238

15.3.2 Fine Structures of Domain Walls in Magnetic Films 239

15.3.3 Micro-Distribution of Magnetic Fields 240

15.3.4 Observing Recorded Magnetization Patterns 240

15.3.5 Quantitative Measurement of Magnetic Moments Using Electron Holography 241

Questions for Thinking 242

References 242

Part IV Characterization Methods for Hyperfine Structures Related to the Magnetic Properties of Electrons and Nuclei 245

16 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy 247

16.1 Basic Theory and Principles 247

16.1.1 Nuclear Spins and Magnetic Moments 247

16.1.2 Relaxation of Nuclear Magnetic Moments 249

16.2 Pulsed Fourier-Transform (FT) NMR Spectrometry 251

16.2.1 Basic Setup of an NMR Spectrometer 251

16.2.2 Basic Operating Principle 252

16.2.3 Parameters and Performance of NMR Measurements 253

16.3 Acquisition of NMR Signals 255

16.3.1 Magnetic Field Gradients 255

16.3.2 Pulse Sequences in MRI 257

Questions for Thinking 259

References 260

17 Mössbauer Effect and Mössbauer Spectroscopy 261

17.1 Introduction 261

17.2 History and Development 262

17.3 Principles and Fundamentals 263

17.3.1 Mössbauer Effect 263

17.3.2 Mössbauer Spectroscopy 264

17.4 Analysis of Mössbauer Spectra 265

17.4.1 Isomer Shift 265

17.4.2 Quadrupole Splitting 266

17.4.3 Magnetic Hyperfine Splitting or Nuclear Zeeman Effect 267

17.5 Instrumentation and Equipment 268

17.5.1 Actuating Device 268

17.5.2 γ-Ray Sources 269

17.5.3 γ-Ray Detectors 269

17.5.4 Amplifier and Pulse-Height Measuring System 271

17.5.5 Data Collector, Processor, and Analyzer 271

17.6 Applications of the Mössbauer Effect and Mössbauer Spectroscopy 272

17.6.1 Features of the Mössbauer Effect and of Mössbauer Spectroscopy 272

17.6.2 Specific Applications 273

Questions for Thinking 275

References 275

Part V Surface Analysis Method 277

18 Atomic Force Microscopy 279

18.1 Detection of Surface Morphology with AFM 279

18.2 History of AFM 281

18.3 Key Components of an AFM Instrument 281

18.3.1 Cantilever and Laser System 281

18.3.1.1 Laser 281

18.3.1.2 Cantilever 281

18.3.2 Piezoelectric Scanner 282

18.3.3 Operating Modes 283

18.3.3.1 Static or Contact Mode 283

18.3.3.2 Dynamic Mode 283

18.3.3.3 Tapping Mode 284

18.3.3.4 Noncontact Mode 285

18.4 Applications and Extensions of AFM 286

18.4.1 Surface Topography 286

18.4.2 Atomic Force Spectroscopy 287

18.4.3 In-situ Observation of Biomolecular Processes 287

18.5 Recent Progress of AFM 288

18.5.1 Principles and Applications of Scanning Near-Field Ultrasonic Holography Under AFM Platform 288

18.5.2 Ultrasonic AFM for the Detection of Subsurface Morphology 288

18.5.3 Photoacoustic Microscopy 290

Questions for Thinking 291

References 291

19 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 293

19.1 Brief History of XPS Spectroscopy 293

19.2 Applications of XPS Spectroscopy 293

19.2.1 Surface Sensitivity 293

19.2.2 Element Resolution, Reliability, and Error 294

19.2.3 Typical Analysis of XPS Spectra 295

Questions for Thinking 296

References 296

Part VI Some Progress and Perspective 297

20 New and Recent Experimental Techniques 299

20.1 Methods Based on Interactions Between Electromagnetic Waves and Matter 299

20.1.1 Confocal Laser Scanning Fluorescence Microscopy 299

20.1.2 Two-Photon Microscopy 301

20.1.3 Optical-Mode Photoacoustic Microscopy 302

20.1.4 Multicolor 3D Fluorescence Microscopy 303

20.1.5 Optical Coherence Tomography 305

20.1.6 X-Ray Free-Electron Lasers 307

20.1.7 Femtosecond Lasers 308

20.1.7.1 Applications of Femtosecond Lasers 309

20.2 Methods Based on Interactions Between Electrons and Matter 310

20.2.1 Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy 310

20.2.1.1 Main Features of ESEM 311

20.2.1.2 Representative Applications of ESEM 312

20.2.2 High-Resolution STEM 313

20.2.3 Transmission Electron Cryomicroscopy 314

20.2.4 Scanning-Probe Microscopy 315

Questions for Thinking 316

References 316

Answers to “Questions for Thinking” 319

Index 349

Yujun Song, Ph D, is Professor in Physics at University of Science and Technology Beijing, China, and Deputy Director of Center for Modern Physics Technology. He has previously studied and worked in both the United States and Canada. In addition to his extensive research into subjects such as surface and interface-controlled fabrication of functional materials for information technology, new energy and catalysis, and biomedicine, he is the long-time instructor of graduate and undergraduate courses on the characterization of condensed matter.
Qingwei Liao, Ph D, is Associate Professor at Beijing Information Science & Technology University, China. She has previously held a visiting faculty position at Harvard University and has published extensively on nanomaterials, applied physics, and related subjects. She serves as the main lecturer of courses like modern analytical testing methods for graduate students.